L .  Agneni, F. Colosi, R. Gabrielli : C.N.R.- I.T.A.B.C., Italy

Integrated investigations for the diachronic reconstruction of the territory: the case of Sabina Tiberina (Latium, Italy)

In this paper we present some preliminary results of an investigation concerning the Sabina Tiberina area (Rieti, Italy). The area studied, which is in the amministrative territory of Magliano Sabina, belongs to the Sabina region on the Tiber river area, where a large stratigraphy shows human presence from Protostoric to Medioeval period. The aim of this study is an environmental and historical reconstruction of the territory in the time, by the morphological characterization of the selected area, the identification and location of all archaeological sites and through the study and design of a GIS for the management of all collected, elaborated and interpreted data sets. The GIS allows to produce 2D and 3D thematic maps including different types of information and to create specific DTM for zones of particular interest. These detailed plottings are produced through the kinematic use of GPS. A data bases containing all the historical archaeological knowledges has been also realized and will be presented in this work. It allows to carry out multiple queries and to manage a large amount of information.

Geoffrey J Avern : Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium

Progress Report on a New Technique for Recording Archaeological Sites and Excavations

In recent years the traditional drawing methods for recording a site or excavation have been supplemented by, in some cases supplanted by, newer techniques such as GIS and digital photography. It is the opinion of the author that while both these are quite obviously very useful tools, neither offer a total solution to the task of recording a site or excavation in three dimensions since the former typically deals with "low-density" data and the latter, while capturing "high-density" data, is effectively restricted to two dimensions. The author’s current doctoral research project seeks to find a recording technique which combines GIS with high-density data (and hence the "photorealism" of digital photography) acquired by range-finding devices, that is to say, by 3D surface modelling. We will discuss and evaluate various range-finding technologies and devices which are currently available, and show the preliminary results of our computer modelling of excavations. Widespread acceptance of such a technique by the archaeological community can only be expected if it is a significant improvement over existing methods and so we will evaluate the proposed technique by five criteria, viz. speed, precision, suitability for use in the field, ease of use and cost. Finally, we will outline the remaining portion of the doctoral project and invite your comment on this effort to realise a better recording system for the field archaeologist.

Matthew  Bampton, Rosemary Mosher : Geography-Anthropology, University of Southern Maine, USA

A GIS Driven Regional Database of Archeological Resources for Research and CRM. in Casco Bay, Maine

The needs of research and CRM are frequently at odds with one another. In the first case maximum accuracy of all records and open access to complete data sets is essential. In the second case differential access to data for the general public and resource managers is a regrettable necessity for protecting archeological resources. The potentials offered researchers and resource managers by the availability of cheap, powerful, and portable computers and GPS units is offset by the potential for abuses of these same tools to exploit archeological sites for personal gain. The legal and moral issues raised for a free society by this dilemma are not amenable to a technical fix. However, careful design of a GIS database offers an interim solution to the problem by simultaneously providing accurate information to the research and management community, while rendering sensitive information in a protected form for the broader audience. Keywords: GPS, GIS, Database, Accuracy, Security.

Juan A Barcelo, J.Pijoan, O.Vicente : Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Spain

Image quantification as archaeological description

Digital image processing  is a usual technique in archaeology. Archaeological images  range from the microscopic to the macroscopic, and a diverse toolbox of computer techniques are available to process these data. However, the very nature of images as archaeological data has not been evaluated. Images are not primary data, but a transformation of empirical reality, translated into a language of  luminance contrast. Images are then the result of a goal.oriented modification. But how this modification can alter the reliability of the analysis? Ver few studies have been published about this topic. Our goal in this paper is to integrate different archaeological applications of microscopy (use-wear in lithic tools, and pottery archaeometry) to define the observational category we are dealing with: texture. If the texture is the complex set of surface properties in an artifact, how we can describe it? What kind of archaeological, historical information we get from the analysis of texture? A related problem is that of image sampling. Digital image techniques have been applied in disciplines where the assumption of surface homogeneity is valid. But the modified surface of an archaeological artifact is always discontinuous. Where you should look at for describing texture? Different images can be obtained from the same artifact, and all those image may be different.  Statistical sampling is then a basic problem in archaeological image processing, and very few studies have been made about. We are exploring the use of Neural Networks and related approaches to deal with this problem. Therefore, this paper deals with the use of microscopic images as a way to describe textures, and with the statistical analysis of quantitatively described textures. CONTENTS: 1) the concept of Texture, 2) Observing Texture: the creation of images, 3) Describing Texture: measuring images, 4) The variability of textures: statistical sampling within an artifact and between artifacts, 5) Explaining texture: experimentation and statistical modelling.

Mike J Baxter : Nottingham Trent University, UK

Variable selection with multivariate archaeological data: an approach explored

In a paper presented at the 1998 CAA conference Jackson and Baxter considered some aspects of variable selection in archaeometric data analysis. It was argued that there would often be merit in using just a subset of what is often a large number of measured variables, as this often offers analytical, presentational and interpretive advantages. From the particular perspective of scientific studies of ancient glass it was noted that variable selection could be dictated by a variety of criteria, and that criteria driven by purely statistical considerations were not necessarily the best to use. The present paper will review, briefly, and expand on some of the reasons for being concerned with variable selection in a more general setting than that adopted in the earlier paper. A formal, and statistical, approach to variable selection - developed in the statistical literature but not previously applied to archaeological problems - will be described and illustrated on some glass data sets. Notwithstanding our previously expressed scepticism about such approaches, the methodology appears to perform quite well. The potential for considerable reduction in the number of variables used is demonstrated clearly and, in the context studied, the variables selected usually make sense. This does not obviate the need for the exercise of archaeological common sense in applying statistical analysis to complex multi-variable data sets, but does hold out hope that the statistical methodology described may be generally useful. If time permits other areas of potential application will be discussed.

Christian C Beardah, M.J. Baxter, T. Beier, H. Mommsen, A. Hein : Department of Mathematics, The Nottingham Trent University, UK

Clustering ceramic compositional data: an S-plus implementation

The scientific analysis of the chemical composition of ceramics naturally leads to multivariate data that is often explored using techniques such as principal components analysis and cluster analysis. The general aim is to identify groups of chemically similar artefacts. Separate groupings could be assumed to indicate, for example, distinct origins or processing recipes of the raw materials (clay) used to make the artefacts. In this paper we aim to show how, with the aid of powerful statistical software such as S-Plus, traditional exploratory multivariate analysis can easily be used alongside, or in combination with, a technique designed specifically for grouping ceramics by chemical composition (Beier and Mommsen, 1994). This latter technique involves grouping together artefacts whose chemical compositions are "close" with respect to a mathematical measure of dissimilarity. The measure used takes into account uncertainty of measurement and the possibility of constant shifts in the data due, for example, to dilution of the clay or instrumental variation. We shall demonstrate the ease of implementation in S-Plus of this methodology and show how graphical exploratory techniques can also be used to create an integrated approach to the grouping of ceramic chemical compositional data. The methodology will be applied to real data of this type.

Chrissoula  Bekiari : Institute of Computer Science, FORTH, Greece

Maistor: A structural documentation system for buildings

The Structural Documentation System for Buildings supports the systematic recording of basic and detailed characteristics of monuments and listed buildings, the classification of  historical, structural, typological and morphological data and the documentation of alterations. More specifically the system supports the development of scientific knowledge base for the detailed description and  the complete and systematic documentation of morphological and structural characteristics (history, typology, morphology, structural typology, material, construction pathology) of listed buildings as described in historical, archaeological, conservation and restoration studies. In addition, the system provides to the user views for comparing, validating and controlling alterations. The system offers automatic connection with cartographic documentation and computer-aided design systems, as well as administrative documentation systems. The  requirement analysis of MAISTOR was carried out in close co-operation with the 7th Ephorate of Modern Monuments, 13th Ephorate of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Antiquities, Institute of Mediteranean Studies, and the Sitia Development Organisation SA. This  paper presents an outline of the architecture and functionality of  the above system. Also it addresses  the notions of spatial and temporal data, cad data, conservation and restoration  data, complex objects and documentation sources and introduces  a  data model, which is -to a high degree- extensible by further analysis without the need for restructuring of the original model. Furthermore, the model allows the creation of dynamically relevant views under different primary aspects.

Evy  Berg : Directorate for Cultural Heritage, Norway

The developement of national registries of sites, monuments and buildings into GIS-based databases

The Directorate of Cultural Heritage of Norway is the owner of several big and smaller national registries of sites, monuments and buildings. We want to present some of the work in progress to establish these databases on a GIS-platform. Among the databases is the Registry of Arhaeological remains, where the The Foundation for Nature Research and Cultural Heritage Research is responsible for updating and developing into av GIS-based database in collaboration with the Diretorate. The represent tive from the Directorate will give a brief presentation of the contents and legal implications the database will have, who is going to use it and for what purposes it is designed, while the research Foundation will give a demonstration of the new database. The interface between this Registry and the big databases owned by the archaeological museums will also be shown.

John L. Bintliff, Phil Howard : Faculteit der Archeologie, Rijksuniversiteit Leiden, The Netherlands

Needles in a haystack? Searching for meaningful structure in micro- and macroscale intensive surface survey with the aid of GIS

When intensive surface field survey took off as a major landscape research tool in the 1960s and 70s, it was considered a rapid and relatively simple means to reconstruct settlement system dynamics for large areas and over long periods of time. The developmental trajectory of surface survey has seen a necessary reduction of scale in the area surveyed and the confidence in maps produced. This is the result of the increasing recognition that surface artefact collections are as taphonomically complex as excavation assemblages. Fortunately the arrival of GIS has offered a powerful aid for the analysis of surface finds at the on-site and off-site level, just at the time when the sheer quantity of the available data from the new phase of ‘total surface survey’, and its highly-problematic character, have raised a challenge to surface surveyors as to whether a reliable overview of ancient landscapes is realistically-achievable. This paper will introduce a newly-developed methodology for micro- and macro-scale analysis of continuous artefact surfaces utilising GIS, currently being deployed on the Boeotia Survey, Central Greece.

Wolfgang H Börner : Stadtarchäologie Wien, Austria

Vienna Archaeological GIS

The Stadtarchäologie Wien is in the fortunate position, of being able to look back on a long history of research. Since the 16th century archaeological remains have repeatedly been found in Vienna, particularly in the city centre. Since the end of the 19th century a large number of excavations have been both detailed in writing, and recorded with sketches. Of importance here are over 1000 sheets of notes, that were written between 1895 and 1915. The interpretation of these old finds and features was only practically possible through the use of EDV (electronic data processing). Therefore, in the last few years, a comprehensive GIS plan had to be drawn up and brought into use by the Stadtarchäologie Wien (Vienna Archaeological GIS). Firstly the sites of archaeological discovery had to be located on the present-day map of Vienna. This task posed a problem, because the cityscape has changed so much since the end of the 19th century, especially after the demolition of the city’s defences in 1860. Because of this, details from the land register had to be used instead. The city of Vienna and the Republic of Austria can draw from their large collection of digital and analog plans. The "Franziszeischer Kataster", a register, which was commissioned by the imperial government around 1819, for the purpose of taxing the inhabitants of the monarchy. This plan is very exact and was recently digitized, transformed and overlaid with the modern-day digital city map of Vienna. This basis enabled the registration of finding from the old excavations. The next step was to draw up and plan the framework for the database. This database was created in ACCESS and linked up to the CAD-programm AutoCAD-Map. In the foreseeable future it will also be possible to call up a light-version of the GIS-application on the internet.

Mario A Brito , Fernando Cabral : Universidade do Porto, Portugal

In Patrimonium: the management of archaeological collections

The purpose of this paper is to present the experience of an archaeological museum about the management of museums collections. We begin the use of computers for managing collections about 10 years ago with a system developed in 4th Dimension where we could already see important ideas of how we should look to documentation and information in museums. With the development of international standards, communication protocols and controlled vocabulary we decided the development of a new system, in the activities of Project GEIRA that is an inactive of two Universities located in the North of Portugal and it’s main objective is the use of Internet and CD-ROM to present information about Portuguese cultural heritage of the North of the country. This new system, InPatrimonium, developed by a Portuguese company, besides the use of international standards allows the innovative use of exploiting the relations between information about the collections and the archaeological sites where they have been found. We will also analyze particular problems of small and medium size museums in their relation with technology and how we tried, with Project GEIRA, the improvement of the use of technology. We will present some of the main activities of GEIRA and their results.

Henry P Chapman : Centre for Wetland Archaeology, UK

Understanding and using archaeological surveys - the error conspiracy

The plans generated from surveys form the backbone of much archaeological research. They create a basis for future fieldwork and for understanding the site within its landscape in a way that is not possible on the ground. However, the robustness and applicability of past surveys are often questionable in terms of original motivation and priorities, with subsequent questions of technique, scale and depiction. Despite this, previous surveys are constantly used as the foundation for subsequent archaeological work without considering matters of accuracy. As such surveys are reproduced and re-used for later work, but without consideration for their true applicability. This paper demonstrates the potential inaccuracy present within archaeological survey in terms of both the original methods, representation and scale, and their reproduction and re-use for the purposes of subsequent research. The site considered consists of earthworks that were surveyed in the 1930s at an unknown scale. Since then, this resulting plan has been used as the foundation for excavations during the 1980s and 1990s, particularly since much of the site had been destroyed in the intermediate years. The site was recently surveyed at high resolution and at centimetre accuracy using Global Positioning System (GPS) equipment to generate an Digital Elevation Model (DEM). This model provided the basis for two seasons of excavation that highlighted the positions of features identified on the earlier survey. However, when the earlier survey was scaled and digitised, the aspect ration of the plan was found to be incorrect and no accurate fit could be obtained. This research demonstrates the hazards of using earlier surveys as the foundation for future research. The errors encountered within this work highlight the magnitude of error that can have a significant effect on the positioning of later excavation work.

Otto  Cichocki : IDEA - Inst. of Palaeontology, University of Vienna, Austria

SCIEM 2000 - Project 7 Dendrochronology Special tasks and new solutions

by Otto Cichocki and Bernhard Knibbe Within the long term scientific project "The Synchronization of Civilizations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium BC", carried out by the Institute of Egyptology, University of Vienna and sponsored by the Academy of Science, Vienna and he Grant for the support of scientific research (FWF) the dendrochronological investigations of wooden artefacts (construction elements of buildings etc., coffins, panels, furniture, objects of art) intend to establish floating chronologies for different wood. They will determine the relative range in time of objects relevant to a relative chronology of certain historical events and further on allow the construction of standards for absolute dating. As most of the wooden objects are on display in museums and of major cultural importance it is impossible to use classical sampling techniques such as drilling cores or cutting disks. Since no alternative products were available, the first task of this project was the development of new approaches towards non- respectively less destructive sampling methods. Two contact free devices are already in use. If the situation allows measuring directly on the object surface by a step-motor-driven video camera, data can be processed and analyzed on location, thus allowing for immediate error correction. A similar appoach utilizes modern digital scanning devices for the measurement of unpainted wood surfaces with satisfying contrast of ring borders. The images are semiautomatically analyzed by a plugin module to the new PAST32 software package. For painted objects do not allow major preparation work on their surfaces a method is in development using inspection of specially preparated small boreholes (diameter 4,5 mm) with help of an endoscope, high resolution video cameras and video frame-grabbr cards for data acquisition. Again the data analysis is done by a PAST32 plugin module.

Jeffrey T Clark : North Dakota State University, USA

Scanning the Future in Archaeology: Three-Dimensional Digital Archiving

This paper summarizes a newly developing program for digital archiving of archaeological materials. The program uses a Minolta Vivid 700 non-contact, color, 3D digitizer to create accurate wire-frame models with detailed surface texture and color. The digitizing process requires multiple scans of each object. Using sophisticated 3D modeling software known as Polyworks, the scans are then aligned, merged, and edited to create a complete model, accurate to within 0.5-1.0 mm. Collections of 3D models will be archived on a dedicated server with associated relational databases using Oracle 8i. Each database contains the digital data for the object model along with other fields covering an array of data on object attributes an contextual information. These databases will be accessible via the Internet and Internet2, so that researchers anywhere my browse the databases and analyze their contents. All database entries will be linked relationally and presented in tree hierarches (or directories) according to taxonomic fields for ease of searching the database. Two archiving examples will be highlighted in this presentation: an archive of lithic artifacts, and an archive of hominid cranial endocasts. The portability of the Viid 700 means that it can be taken to distant artifact repositories where specific collections can be scanned and added to the databases. Digital databases will streamline information management, storage, and retrieval processes. Furthermore, such digital databases will significantly improve data analyses, modeling, interpretations, access, and curation in archaeology. While archives of this sort are not yet available, we have no doubt that 3D scanning, digital-model analysis, and digital curation will be essential components of archaeological and preservation management programs in the not-too-distant future.

Dora   Constantinidis : Athens University, Greece

Introspective Sitescaping with GIS

The application of GIS to archaeological research has primarily facilitated landscape analysis up to the present moment. Can research concepts developed for landscape analysis with GIS be converted for "sitescape" analysis? Exactly what sort of analyses can be performed for intrasite research utilising a GIS? A preliminary set of questions arising from this type of research is presented for the site of Akrotiri on Thera. The relatively well preserved state of this site offers a number of reseach options. This paper presents results of the analysis of the site's plans, using MapInfo in order to determine aspects of spatial organisation within the site.

George L. Cowgill : Department of Anthropology, Arizona State University, USA

Past, Present, and Future of Quantitative Methods in American Archaeology

I briefly review the history of quantitative methods in American archaeology and assess their present status. I then identify topics that seem likely to be most active in the near future and express my opinions about the directions that I think will be most productive over a somewhat longer term. What topics, what methods, and what general approaches should be given special attention and encouragement? What roles should quantitative methods play in the archaeology (or archaeologies) of the 21st century?

Sarah J Cross : Dundalk Institute of Technology, Ireland

Modelling Acoustics in Prehistoric Ceremonial Sites

Henges have long been interpreted as centres of prehistoric ritual for growing communities in the Later Neolithic. During fieldwork a hengiform site in Co. Sligo Ireland was noted to have acoustic properties similar to a Greek Amphitheatre. It is possible this henge was designed so that principal participants (actors) could be heard by the wider community (audience). This has implications for the study of prehistoric social structure as well as the origins of theatre. Since the site has suffered erosion it is difficult to test this possibility directly. An interdisciplinary project was designed to create an accurate digital terrain model of the site and test the acoustic properties of that model with different assumptions about degradation over time. While the 3D modelling of archaeological sites is fairly commonplace, the application of acoustics software involves a broader reach for computing in archaeology.

Robinson  Damian : , UK

Digital Archiving Pilot Project: Excavation Records (DAPPER)

Modern excavations create huge amounts of digital information. Whether it is the on-site recording of the archaeology, specialist databases created during post-excavation or publication standard interpretative maps and plans, digital information has the potential to be created at every stage from assessment to publication. Within the discipline there has been an increasing awareness that this vulnerable data is as much a part of the primary site archive as artefacts and paper records. It has equally been recognised that data creators and traditional archives are under-resourced and ill prepared to accession and effectively archive digital information. The Digital Archiving Pilot Project for Excavation Records (DAPPER) arose from these concerns. DAPPER was a collaborative venture between the Archaeology Data Service (ADS), English Heritage (EH), the Museum of London Archaeology Service (MoLAS) and the Oxford Archaeological Unit. The Pilot Project aimed to prove the concept of digital excavation archives in order to inform the development of best practice in this emerging field. DAPPER provided access to two full digital excavation archives and quantified the efforts and costs involved in their production and dissemination The pilot project also wanted to encourage the re-use of these digital repositories and explored the use of the Internet to enhance access to archaeological data. DAPPER has created the world's first on-line digital excavation archive; this paper will critically assess the project's success and offer a future vision for archaeological digital project archives.

Michele  De Silva , Giovanna Pizziolo : Dipartimento di Studi Storici e Geografici - Universita di Firenze, Italy

Setting up a 'human calibrated' anisotrpic cost surface for archaeological landscape investigation

From a landscape archaeology perspective that takes advantage of GIS investigative tools, the debate regarding the definition of reachable and proximity areas related to sites and settlements is still currently underway. The adoption of models and mathematical functions that take into consideration the interaction between space and human beings is one of the more stimulating issues of GIS application in archaeology. It appears necessary to develop models that take into consideration the entire complex of variables that participate in the definition of human behaviour in the real world. This paper focuses on one of these variables, particularly relevant in a prehistoric context, and which constitutes human effort in walking within the landscape. The latter is calculated in terms of energy consumed related to movement on plane or sloping areas both upwards or downwards. In this study the model adopted calculates the cost of movement through space from a prehistoric settlement perspective which takes into consideration the effort to move away from a site but also return to it. For example  with regard to a hillside settlements, a hunting place or working site located at the bottom of the valley is not necessarily more advantageous, in terms of cost, then one located at the top of the hill, since in each case a return journey ‘home’ is implicated. It is likely that return journeys will occur to and from the settlement throughout the course of daily activities. In order to obtain a ‘friction to movement’ surface, a mathematical function related to a linear path has been modified to be used on a raster grid. Subsequently, a ‘round trip’ criteria has been adopted to calculate cost distance from prehistoric settlements. In particular this methodology has been applied to a few Neolithic settlements in a study area of the Larino territory (Molise, Italy).

François Djindjian : University of Paris 1, France

Artefact analysis

An attempt of a state of the art concerning artefact Analysis is given, based mainly on the results of the world-wide archaeological research since forty years. The report begins with a brief history of the concept of artefact since the XIX° century, in association with their archaeological knowing. Then a semiotic theory of artefact Analysis is proposed, based on the interaction between artefact and archaeologist, and developed around the different meanings of perception, authentication, naming, characterisation, encyclopaedic knowing and recognition. The artefact description is formalised, using item vocabulary, syntactic relationships, different intrinsic meanings, various measures or variables, and quantification of the attributes, for a statistical approach of similarities and dissimilarities between artefacts. The concept of type is then analysed, in all its complexity : real or virtual types, intrinsic or extrinsic types, and further the concept of artefact taxonomy. In the second part of the report, the use of the artefact in the archaeological constructs is listed and criticised. It concerns mainly artefact taxonomy (or clustering), “culture” identification, seriation, intrasite spatial analysis, raw material identification and artefact circulation from manufacturing sites, etc. The mathematical approaches of the previous structuring constructions are described, from elementary statistics or graphics to data Analysis, using factor analysis and clustering methods. The data processing environment (hardware, software and packages) is given. The main contributions of different scholars in the seventies and the eighties is summarised. These theoretical approaches are the same in Archaeology when applied from an artefact to a set of artefacts : for example, a unique artefact (a tool), a set of identical artefacts (the stones of a wall), a set of different artefacts (burnt stones, charcoals and ashes of a combustion system), a system of different sets of artefacts (dwelling structure), etc. It is then possible to integrate the artefact system analysis in a more global reconstitution, like for example the spatial analysis of the peopling of a territory by the means of a G.I.S tool, where the same structuring statistics are embedded in the software G.I.S. package. Nevertheless, the concept of artefact is different according to the different Archaeologies: Classical Archaeology from History, Prehistoric Archaeology from Natural Sciences, New Archaeology, Post-Processual Archaeology, Cognitive Archaeology. These different approaches have involved different methods and various interest and role in artefact analysis, which need to be analysed. In conclusion, if there is no archaeological reconstitution without artefact analysis, its cognitive potential is directly associated with the good use of Semiotic, Statistics and Computers applied to a cognitive interaction between an artefact and the archaeologists. Hopefully, archaeologists have never stopped meddling with things that they know nothing about ! Even and especially when they were not specialists of semiotic, statistics and computers.

Martin U Doerr, Demetrios Kalomoirakes : ICS-FORTH, Greece

A Metastructure for Archeological Terminology

Controlled terminology becomes more and more important for the electronic documentation of archeological object description and its consistent retrieval in wide area networks. Even though there is a vast literature and established practise in reating thesauri, the logical organization, the "metastructure" of a thesaurus is still rather unreflected, in particular in the more abstract layers. So-called "major" and "minor" facets, guide terms or node labels (ISO2788), are distributed intuitively or in reaction to the growth of the authority in order to group a set of sibling terms by an implicit property or aspect of documentation these terms xpress. As facets and node labels are not eligible terms for classification, but rather classify the terms themselves, we regard them as elements of one possible metastructure of a thesaurus. The Greek Ministry of Culture is developing a general purpose thesaurus for archeology in cooperation with ICS-FORTH. This thesaurus aims at classifying consistently traditional terms and at providing an indexing language for object documentation activit es of the Ministry. Based on contextual and phenomenal notions, an extensible, systematic metastructure for terminology in archeology is proposed, which seems to be more comprehensive for the expert than traditional approaches.  This paper discusses the benefits of such an approach for the three tasks of a thesaurus: (1) to assist users to find correct terms, (2)to clarify the meaning of terms and (3) to provide an indexing language for objects of documentation. In particular, the proposed structure can provide a better understanding of the implicit criteria intrinsic to object classification terms and the relation between compound expressions and traditional terms. Finally it is argued, that more effective implementation scheme than ISO 2788 are needed to capture so rich semantic structures.

Graeme Earl, Sarah Poppy, Nick  Ryan : Department of Archaeology, University os Southampton, UK

A context aware computing strategy for field survey: research from Falerii Novi Roman Town, Italy

Graeme Earl (Department of Archaeology, University of Southampton) Sarah Poppy (GeoData Institute, University of Southampton) Nick Ryan (The Computing Laboratory, University of Kent at Canterbury) Mobile computing with context awareness has been shown to offer great potential for the recording of spatial data. In particular, a GPS and palm computer configuration provides an intuitive means for recording spatially referenced data without the rigidity imposed by traditional survey approaches. Past work by the Mobile Computing in the Field group, and others, has demonstrated the potential of this approach in a broad range of fieldwork contexts. Located in Rome's northern hinterland, the Tiber Valley, the town of Falerii Novi was founded in the 3rd century BC. Although currently under cultivation, a few excavated remains and survey results demonstrate this 30 hectare site to be a well-preserved example of Roman urbanism. In conjunction with a program of systematic field survey at Falerii Novi, software developed by the MCFE group has been tested in real-world, archaeological applications. This paper discusses the benefits gained from the methodology, in particular the freedom and speed improvements introduced by context awareness. Three applications are discussed in detail. Firstly, the use of palm computers to provide a note-taking facility to aid fieldworkers in the course of survey activities. Here information is collected and stored in a logical, consistent and spatially referenced format for easy integration within database and GIS applications. Secondly, the paper describes a fieldwalking strategy based entirely on context awareness, with a sample of surface observations generated very rapidly for the entire town area. Finally, these data are analysed and compared to data gathered through conventional means, and interpreted with reference to site layout and chronology.

Rik  Feiken : Groningen Institute of Archaeology, The Netherlands

Influence of historic earth moving activity on modern field survey results: A GIS analysis

One of the basic assumptions behind archaeological interpretations of the results of field walking surveys is, that the recorded materials represent the ancient landscape. In some areas this is clearly not true. In the current case study the author uses historic elevation data of a part of the Pontine marshes (Lazio province, Italy) in comparison to a more recent DEM, to assess the influence of earth moving activities since the late 1920's. Small-scale changes can thus be related to the results of a detailed field walking survey conducted in the same area by the RPC Project team in 1998-9.

Christine A Finn : The Institute of Archaeology, Oxford University, UK

Relics and reliqueries: computer technology  as archaeology

This proposal comes from a self-confessed computer illiterati, who is fascinated by the way things move from the cultural present to the past. It will consider computers and software as artefacts which can be - and in deed are - being conserve as  museum exhibits. Some things are too new to be on display, but  nevertheless out-of-date with regard to their original context. The paper will draw on research into companies and institutions and interviews with those who are selecting what should be preserved of the computer age.

Maurizio  Forte, Angela Bizzarro, Alessandro Tilia, Stefano Tilia : CNR-ITABC, Italy

3d visual information and GIS technologies for paintings' documentation: the tomb of 'Cristo Sole' in the Vatican Necropolis (III Cent. A.D.)

Digital technologies may be very helpful in the graphic documentation of paintings, not only for the inherently more detailed and faster method of  drawing, but, in particular, for the 3D representation of data (structures and materials) in real time, that is, the possibility to have many dynamic views of the same model in order to visualize and interpret features, shapes, and state of conservation of structures and materials. Moreover, it is very important to highlight that paintings or mosaics are inteligible as 3D objects rather than 2D objects, since they represent solid objects, after all. Then, using GIS technologies for collecting data, it is possible to process the relative information in detail. So we have chosen to consider the walls and the polychrome mosaic vault of the "Cristo Sole" Mausoleum (III cent. a.D.) in the Vatican Necropolis. The mosaic presents a small tessera decoration (of which only a fraction is still in place), on the walls add on the highly depressed vault; where the tesserae are missing, the mosaic preparatory surface still enables us to  interpret the original decoration.. The main goal of our project is the virtual detailed 3D reconstruction of a micro-model of the above mentioned decorations through the use of digital techniques, in order to have a final "cognitive" representation. To obtain this, we have implemented new tools for the acquisition of detailed 3d surfaces. The general positoning (georeferencing) was achieved thanks to a Leica TCR 1103 total station; this instrument also enabled us to obtain vast amounts of surface data for the 3D model thanks to its reflectorless Laser EDM (Electronic Distance Measuring) range finder. Where more detail was necessary, further surface data was gathered using a Microscribe 3D Mechanical Arm Digitizer coupled to a laptop computer. The project involves these main approaches: digital acquisition of surfaces, digital documentation of mosaics and paintings, 3D virtual reconstruction of models, 3d virtual communication of the information by VRML metaphors through Internet.

Maurizio  Forte, Rodolfo Fattovich, Monica Foccillo, Francisco Estrada Belli, Malalgy Koch, Kathryn A. Bard : CNR-ITABC, Italy

The IUO/BU Archaeological Project at Aksum (Ethiopia): GIS and Remote Sensing Applications

The Archaeological Expedition at Aksum (Ethiopia) of the Istituto Universitario Orientale, Naples (Italy), and Boston University, Boston (USA) resumed investigations at Bieta Giyorgis, a hill to the NW of Aksum in May-June 1993. Six field seasons have been directed by Rodolfo Fattovich (IUO) and Kathryn A. Bard (BU), in 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997 and 1998. The general goal of the IUO and BU Expedition is to study the development of complex societies in Tigrai from late prehistoric (3rd-2nd millennia BC) to medieval times (14th century AD). Earlier investigations have focused on the rise of complex societies in the western Sudanese lowlands (Kassala, Sudan) in the 3rd-2nd millennia BC, and the pre-Aksumite state on the Tigrean plateau (Yeha, Tigrai) in the 1st millennium BC. The current stage of the project is mainly interested in the rise and development of the Aksumite state (late 1st millennium BC- early 1st millennium AD). Particular emphasis was also given to the study of the involvement of Aksum in the trade network from the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean. Excavations at Bieta Giyorgis were aimed at testing the hypothesis, based on traditional Ethiopian sources, that the hill was an area of early development at Aksum. An important goal of this project is to investigate the origins and urban development of Aksum within its environmental setting. The project includes research in archaeology, paleoethnobotany, archaeozoology, ethnoarchaeology, history, geology and geomorphology, digital technologies as well as systematic mapping and conservation. In particular the paper will present the preliminary results of GIS and Remote Sensing applications concerning the area of Aksum, comparing in 2D and in 3D digital data such as: aerial photos (1:10.000), satellite images (Landsat TM, SPOT XS), cartography, landscape documentation.

Francis   Grew : Curator (Archaeology), Museum of London, UK

Metadata metaphysics

The concept of metadata – or ‘data about data’ – is rapidly taking root in the museum and archaeological world. Having originated as an extension of traditional library practice into an electronic environment, metadata description is now seen as a way of facilitating access to the rapidly proliferating information sets being generated by archaeological fieldwork and research. In Britain, for example, the Dublin Core standard – which was designed with an eye to simple resource discovery – is being implemented by the Archaeology Data Service. In this paper I shall explore some of the assumptions and philosophy that underlie standards such as Dublin Core, in order to consider how satisfactorily bibliographic practices can be applied to the description of archaeological data sets. To what extent, for instance, does the metadata record itself – by definition, selective and rigidly framed – embody unacknowledged biases, restrict multivocal interpretation and discourage, rather than encourage, research? After this, I shall turn to examine how current metadata systems might be extended into the fields of digital preservation and data management. This will include a review of several projects in progress in north America and Britain. The paper will draw throughout on the author’s experiences in devising standards for the deposition of archaeological archives with the Museum of London (http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/archguide.htm) and in designing access systems for the London Archaeological Archive and Research Centre (a Heritage Lottery-funded project).

Örjan  Hermodsson : National Heritage Board, Documentation and Research Dept., Sweden

On the archaeological survey in 1997-98 in the Östhammar district of Uppsala county in Sweden

This report will illustrate how some Swedish archaeological surveys are performed, using modern methods for determining the positions of the objects. The development of the DGPS-system has a high degree of accuracy and makes it possible to locate objects in the range of 0,6 to 1 metre. It enables you to use free differential correction broadcasts from government-established navigation beacon reference stations around the world. The area surveyed is situated in the Dannemora and Film parishes in the Östhammar district. In earlier times this region was a very important centre for mining. Numerous remains of this early industrial activity have been recorded here and also some foundations of old manors. Furthermore many prehistoric remains have been recorded, as graves and burial fields from the Bronze- and Iron Age, mounds of fire cracked stones, ancient field systems etc

Sorin  Hermon, Patrice Kaminsky : Archaeological Division, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel

The virtual ancient southern levant

A Project of the Department of Bible and Ancient Near Eastern Studies of the Ben-Gurion University; Sorin Hermon and Patrice Kaminsky Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel. The purpose of the lecture is to present a new project of the Archaeological Division of our university, its aim being the building of a large data-base of main archaeological sites in Israel, starting with the archaeological projects of our university. The database includes a virtual reconstruction of main architectural features and archaeological sections, the information regarding the excavation of the sites, with emphasis of main features in each site and a virtual reconstruction of the context (3D spatial distribution) of the selected artifacts. The selection of the sites is done according to their coordinates, or navigating through the map of Israel. As soon as a site is selected, a zooming option enables the user to navigate through the site and choose desired features to be shown, either in 2D (plans) or 3D model. Upon availability, maps, photos or inventory lists related to the selected features are presented. Several programs are used: 1. AutoCad for mapping, zooming (through layers) and presentation of 2D architectural plans and 3D models of sections and main architectural features. 2. PhotoShop for adjusting the relevant pictures related to the features of the archaeological site and for the preparation of the plates, presenting selected artifacts. 3. Microsoft Access for building the database of the inventory of the archaeological artifacts. 4. EndNote for the preparation of the relevant bibliography. 5. CorrelDraw for the preparation of vector lines of the architectural plan drawings. The importance of the project is in: 1. Presentation of a large database concerning the main archaeological projects in Israel. 2. The initiative to combine traditional presentation of archaeological projects (2D) with 3D visualization 3. Accessibility to a large amount of information (photos, sections, inventory lists, etc.) concerning the excavations and their findings, embedded in the visualization model.

Sorin  Hermon : Ben-Gurion University, Israel

An Experimental Method for the Analysis of Attributes of Flint Artifacts Using Image Processing

The purpose of the experiment was to evaluate the potential existing in image processing techniques for the analysis of attributes of flint artifacts. The case study was a sample of one hundred sickle blades from the chalcolithic period of Southern Israel. During the experiment, several steps were evaluated, in order to obtain maximum information regarding the morphology of the analyzed artifacts: 1. The location, the angle and the intensity of light source, in order to catch the contour of the artifacts, in order to reduce information corrupted by background and shade. 2. In order to obtain information regarding the surfaces of the artifacts (which correspond to scars of previous removals on the dorsal face of the items), several sequences were taken, from different angles.  3. The problem of the influence of the ambient source of light was evaluated. 4. The optimal source of light 5. How images should be taken (distance from camera, sequence of frames, background, saving format of images). Following this experiment, the most suitable conditions for taking the images were defined, and several characteristics of the morphology of the flint artifacts were defined, for an appropriate comparison and classification of the attributes to be analyzed. The software used for the image processing was VTK, using TcL script, the images taken were prepared with PaintShop Pro, both softwares being in the public domain. The lecture will focus on the various stages of the experiment, the archaeological implications of it, its advantages and its limitations.

Harold J Hietala : Department of Anthropology, USA

Spatial Patterns and Middle Paleolithic Behavioral Organization at the Tor Faraj Rockshelter in South Jordan

Excavation of the 70,000 year old Late Levantine Mousterian occupations at the Tor Faraj Rockshelter in South Jordan point to behavioral organizations resembling those of modern humans. Three dimensional pin-point plots of artifacts, features, and related evidence were collected with a laser theodolyte linked to a data storage unit. (Sokkia Set-6 Total Station). These positional data were downloaded to a PC on a daily basis and subsequently examined with several software programs for spatial analysis. This allowed for rapid evaluation of the contextual relationships of data exposed across successive living floors. Contextual relationships of artifacts and hearths show that the hearths were synchronously used and positioned to provide a "sleeping corridor" between the fires and the shelter's sun-warmed backwall. The shelter's setting, exposure, and opal phtolith data are consistent with a winter occupation. The artifact distributions also define concentric zones of "drop" and "toss" areas tethered to the hearths. Spatially sensitive wear-pattern studies of tools and artifacts in different areas of one occupation floor support interpretations of consistently placed discrete 'activity' areas. Significantly, these contextual patterns are similar to those reported for Late Paleolithic and ethnographic groups from various parts of the world.

Clarke  Jo : , UK

Questions raised by electronic publication in archaeology

Electronic publication has become an accepted part of archaeology. It is seen as relatively cheap and easy to produce and gives a rapid result. As well as being a widely accessible resource, but is it being used to its full potential? This paper will address the issues which have been created by electronic publication in archaeology; how technological capabilities rival multimedia possibilities, and speed and ease of publication have a bearing on the quality of presentation. Is it good enough to use the Internet for dissemination alone, or should we be focussing more upon the possibilities available through this alternative medium.  The above points will be illustrated using an electronic excavation report of the excavations of Cottam B, East Yorkshire.

Ian  Johnson : Archaeological Computing Laboratory, School of Archaeology, Australia

The Electronic Cultural Atlas Initiative: global access to cultural data using the TimeMap methodology

In this paper we will outline the design principles of an Internet-accessible metadata clearinghouse for spatio-temporal datasets conforming to the TimeMap data structuring standards. The clearinghouse allows the discovery of datasets and seamless querying of the data from multiple servers anywhere on the Internet, both through textual database search and through display of geographic data in the TimeMap viewer software (TMView). The paper will examine the strengths and weaknesses of the snapshot-transition model adopted by the TimeMap project, and the extent to which existing datasets can be regarded as conforming to the model and made accessible to TMView through appropriate metadata. The paper will draw on practical experience gained through the implementation of an SQL server-based metadata clearinghouse for the Electronic Cultural Atlas Initiative and the development of TimeMap-compatible datasets registered with the clearinghouse. It will illustrate both the web-based and standalone metadata editors and data upload toolkits developed for the project, and summarise options for GIS data serving on the Internet.

Biro T. Katalin : Hungarian National Museum, Hungary

Distribution maps forever... (?!)

Archaeologists, especially those trying to apply mathematical-statistical methods in their work aim at a certain objectivity: do "science" rather than "arts". But: are we really objective, and how much? Such questions will be treated, in connection with one of the tools commonly used to visualise our results in geographical space, i.e., the distribution map. This paper aims at surveying factors which influence the objectivity of this type of representation, such as: scope - in geographical, chronological and thematical sense dimensions - how many variables are, or can be taken into consideration without loosing the meaning relevance - is the feature we are tracking, meaningful for something - and for what, considering a (historical) interpretation competence - how, and how much the content of the data represented depend on the practice, capabilities and information of the analyst. It will be also essayed to show different representations of the same theme in course of (research) time.

Neil  Lang : English Heritage, National Monuments Record Centre, UK

Making Space for England’s historic environment: the Heritage Spatial Information Service (HSIS)

Substantial progress has been made in developing text databases of the historic environment in central government over the last decade in England.  With the exception of the computerised mapping system (CMS) which provides mapping support for the statutory protection of monuments (known as Scheduled Ancient Monuments), this has not been matched by parallel investment in systems to support the graphic representation and spatial analysis of heritage records. This paper will set out our experience in procuring and delivering a major spatial information system to redress the balance. The Heritage Spatial Information Service is an ambitious project to integrate the key heritage datasets held by English Heritage, the principal central government heritage agency in England.  Developed under the Private Finance Initiative, it is being implemented by IBM, using Intergraph’s GeoMedia Pro software as the GIS and ORACLE Spatial Data Cartridge.  This will provide a managed service, under a five-year contract, on a scale that has rarely been attempted within the heritage sector.  The HSIS will encompass heritage layers for Scheduled Ancient Monuments, Listed Buildings, Historic Parks and Gardens, Historic Battlefields, World Heritage Sites, and NewHIS (a large general database of archaeological monuments, including maritime records).  When completed, it will contain over 1 million records of the English historic environment, and will be one of the largest spatially enabled resources of its kind. There have five major anticipated benefits in the development of the HSIS: Improving data quality: A key purpose in implementing the system was to improve the locational accuracy and representation of heritage objects.  For example, the depiction of visible (and probable) extents of monuments, and constraint areas is currently represented in most systems as a single point. 1. Enabling better integration of data sets, through viewing in a common spatial environment.  Currently, many of the national datasets sit on independent platforms, and to different standards.  This will enable the major statutory and quasi-statutory records to be viewed against the totality of heritage records held in the National Monuments Record.  Potentially, it could have a significant input to future conservation policy and selection of  heritage sites for protection. 2. Automating changes in spatial information in text databases: When information in the ‘real world’ changes, for example the boundaries of administrative areas, the process of identifying and correcting records within a text database is slow, expensive and subject to human error.  Close attention has been paid to using the spatial engine of the GIS to control the spatial information held in the external databases.3. Improving data retrieval: despite a great deal of effort on methods of indexing text databases, there are still a number of types of enquiry which cannot be easily resolved without effective tools for spatial capture and analysis (for example, identifying sites which may be affected along an irregular development corridor by generating a buffer zone in a GIS). 4. Improving understanding of data: In common with many other records management organisations, far more effort has been expended on gathering data together, organising it, and indexing it than on understanding what it means.  The research potential for many such records remains largely uncharted territory.  Although data quality may not always fully meet the needs of researchers, the scale of the datasets allows questions and manipulation which can rarely be performed within the scope, for example, of a typical PhD thesis.  HSIS should become and integral tool for the field teams within English Heritage.  It is also hoped that it will be used extensively by external researchers.  There should be a cycle between ‘what we know’ as expressed in the heritage datasets and ‘what we want to know’  - our future research agendas.  Currently, there is an uncomfortable gap between ‘current knowledge’ and ‘deposited knowledge’ (i.e. knowledge expressed in a commonly accessible databank). Although HSIS is set to deliver the anticipated benefits, a number of limitations and difficulties have been experienced in the course of implementing the project: - Incorporation of data from existing text databases using complex data models and processes within the GIS has imposed limitations on the method of querying datasets. - Careful thought has been required to maintain synchronicity between the GIS and the external data  - The depiction of sites has been complicated by the substantial volumes of legacy data to be incorporated - The varying quality of mapbases used to capture data have resulted in positional errors, which are apparent when displayed against a common map background (which is being exacerbated by field information captured using GPS.  - Some key datasets are not yet geo-referenced in a suitable way for incorporation. One of the central purposes of English Heritage’s National Monuments Record is to enable the dissemination of information and to foster physical and intellectual access to heritage information.  To this end, in time, we will be aiming to make the information available and spatially retrievable, over the Internet.  The paper will conclude by looking the potential for web-based dissemination of information, and the implications for encouraging wider enjoyment of the heritage in the new Millennium.

Sabatino  Laurenza, Paolo Carafa, Roberto De Nicola : University "La Sapienza", Italy

A Multidimensional GIS for the study and the analyses of historical monumental complexes

The insuperable limit of archaeological research consists on the fragmentation of the contextual set of any observation field, which has never been preserved intact during the time: the “sealed contexts”. The reconstruction nowadays, is possible with a stochastic proposal that, for growing approximations, gives us a full framework of pertinent data and able to link information and contexts otherwise desegregating in the textual or on sheets based lecture. In this framework, we decided that our application, born on a MURST project, could be helpful during the analytical and documentation phases of excavations, for the corpus and heterogeneity of the data, and for the techniques and the methodology of recording and analyses of an archaeological excavation. We decided therefore, to implement and to test a new methodology and also a new strategy for each particular characteristic of the examined situation and at the end to catch what are the most appropriate types of queries and analyses on a historical monumental complex. The project, started in May-June 1999 at the University “La Sapienza” of Rome, under the scientific direction of Prof. Andrea Carandini, focused on three cases study: Pompeii, Veio and Palatino. Until now, we developed the application of this model on the first case study (Pompeii), with a multidimensional GIS system, able to help the field research and the analytical aspects of the archaeologists, analysing the single operative moments. In such way, this different moments will help the archaeologists themselves, creating a kind of feedback, as a progressive skilling of the information and working on different and deepest analytical levels, producing information with a retroactive cognitive value. Briefly, the system consists on the elaboration of a topographic and topological database with inside all the spatial and topological information of the monuments, with the descriptive data and attributes of single contexts, at a Macroscale, and of the single unit and/or action stratigraphical, with topological databases, at a Microscale.

Alexandra  Leite Velho : Instituto Politécnico de Tomar, Portugal

Complexity in action - THE emergency of agro-pastorals societies

We intended in this communication to present the results obtained in a simulation in which a fictitious society of hunter-gatherers and farmers was produced, animated by agents, by introducing in it the most basic rules as being born, to eat and to die. This type of simulations is designated by complex adaptive systems (CAS) and they're based on a system of rules where interact agents that adapt, complexifying the system in where they're inserted. The individual behaviours are going solemnity-being organised surpassing, individually, an entire series of obstacles that are opposed to them, demonstrating that nature is not a previsible, nor a completely certain entity. These behaviours are governed by general beginnings, which supply tracks for the resolution of problems, to us fit us to isolate these general beginnings and to translate them in rules computer sciences that formed the our intelligent agents' characteristics. Following the maximum processualist nomotetic. The main characteristic of this system, is the emergency concept. This phenomena happens when it is witnessed that a group of simple beginnings develops complex phenomenon. What is observed in our system is that the strategy of hunt-gathering comes as the most favourable, but also as the most unstable in comparison to the agricultural activity.

Alexandra  Leite Velho : Instituto Politécnico de Tomar, Portugal

Archaeology in 3D

In this communication it's intended to present an objects and buildings group built tridimensionaly and that one finds inserted in the project Archaeology in 3D. Archaeology 3D seeks the three-dimensional reconstruction of archaeological data through geometric elements, definitions of textures, computation of colours, inclusion of environmental and atmospheric effects and the illumination simulation. It intends to create a group of resources in terms of photos, videos, and virtual worlds that allow an approach to the past and a help to the investigation. If possible we intended to reach the concept of computerised station. The rebuilding in 3 dimensions, provides a new one to look at and an important progress for the visual understanding of the archaeological elements. The study acquires the necessary tridimensionality for a global understanding of the object. The presentation of archaeological researches using three dimensions can create the atmosphere the most approximate possible of the visual world in its more original form. The objective of the virtual reconstruction of archaeological vestiges is the obtaining of a realistic reproduction, in way to get an approach of the Real just as it was imagined and built in the past. It allows to contextualize the object's in its space reality, and to analyse subjects stratigrafics. To associate old and new information of the excavation, that is, the information is going been added in successive layers that can be correlated and crossed to each other.

Frederic F Leymarie, David Cooper, Martha Sharp Joukowsky, Benjamin Kimia, David Laidlaw, David Mumford, Eileen Vote : The Brown University SHARP Lab, USA

The SHARP Lab - New Technology and Software for Archaeologists

The SHARP* Lab was recently established (1999), with a grant from the United States National Science Foundation, by Brown University Departments of Engineering, Applied Mathematics, Computer Science and The Center for Old World Archaeology and Art and Department of Anthropology. It is a significant interdisciplinary effort for scientific research with a direct application to important problems in the analysis of archaeological finds and artifacts. We will present the concepts that underlie a 3D shape language, and an interactive, mixed-initiative system, along with machine and decision-directed Bayesian surface-estimation software for the recovery of 3D free-form object and selected scene structure from one or more images and video. This work will have impact by providing new practical tools. It will also provide an effective testbed for 3D shape reconstruction and recognition, more descriptive local and global models for working with 3D shapes, a better understanding of human/decision-making-machine-interaction for free-form geometric modeling and for extracting 3D geometry from one or more images and video, as well as associated computational complexity issues. As applied to the field of archaeology, this technology will provide, specifically, new ways to analyze and reconstruct pottery, compare objects from different sites and reconstruct sculpture and architecture. *SHARP: SHape analysis, digital Archaeology, Photogrammetry

Marcos  Llobera : Institute of Archaeology, University College London, Centre for Advance Spatial Analysis, University College London, Pitt-Rivers Museum, University of Oxford, UK

More than meets the eye

In spite of their severe limitations, viewsheds are very much present in any GIS application in archaeology (see Gillings forthcoming). A lot of work is needed to improve existing routines, however, these improvements will not be forthcoming because of our lack of knowledge about the visual aspects of landscape. There is much to we need to learn about, and much to be discovered. Here I present some simple developments based on an existing viewshed routine. They are part of a general effort towards obtaining new insights on the visual aspect of landscapes. The concepts of a visual and total landscape (Llobera 1999) are introduced, the former being an extension of what traditionally has been know as a cumulative viewshed (Wheatley 1992)

Jesus  Lores : University of Lleida, Spain

Virtual reality as an extension of the archaeological record. Reconstruction of an Iron Age fortress: Els Vilars (Arbeca, Catalonia, Spain)

Els Vilars is and Iron Age site located in the north-eastern part of the municipality of Arbeca in Catalonia, Spain. Starting from the previous proposals, the present phase of the project can be defined through the following objectives: A) The reconstruction of the fortress This will be carried out diachronically, including 4 phases: Vilars 0, I, II and III - IV, given that the upper levels do not allow individualised restoration. A virtual reconstruction of the elements of the post-depositional processes that they have affected the enclosure after its abandonment will also be incorporated, with the aim of illustrating the causes of its current state. The reconstruction will include two levels of detail. Firstly at a macro level, affecting the principal urbanistic elements (defences, street plan, habited spaces). Secondly, at a micro level, permitting a virtual visit to the interior of some of the houses with enough elements to differentiate the functional use of the space. B) The reconstruction of the paleo-topography. This will be centred on the area of the immediate surroundings of the site (a radius of 5 km.), given that the scope of current research does not permit longer-range reconstruction. C) The reconstruction of the environment. The lack of specific intervention outwith the space for the immediate use of the inhabitants of Vilars constitutes the most awkward aspect for the researcher when it comes to situating the different elements that appear. Nevertheless, the existing information permits a reconstruction of the types of the crops, livestock and the hunting resources, as well as the mineral and forestry resources exploited. D) The user interface. An interactive system are being developed to allow arqueologists to interact using real time direct manipulation interfaces to add arqueological information to the arqueological database.

Quentin  Mackie : Department of Anthropology, University of Victoria, Canada

Prehistoric settlement and mobility patterns in two fjordland archipelagos: a network location-allocation approach

The Northwest Coast of North America is a deeply indented and rugged fjordland archipelago.  Ethnographic and archaeological information and environmental constraints suggest that water transport has long been the dominant means of mobility.  With this starting assumption, it is possible to confidently represent archaeological sites as being joined by a schematic mobility network of least-path distances across the water.  Knowing both site locations and the routes which join them opens up interesting avenues of investigation, including investigation of landscapes of optimality, history and habit.  This paper presents results of the network application of the location-allocation spatial interaction model in two western Canadian study areas: Nuu-Chah-Nulth territory on west coastal Vancouver Island and the Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site on the southern Queen Charlotte Islands.

Mark W Mehrer : Northern Illinois University, USA

Predictive Modeling and Large Archaeological GIS Databases in the USA

Archaeologists are now a fast growing group of researchers with pressing needs to apply predictive models as decision-support tools.  However, there are important issues to be resolved before predictive modeling can be widely adopted by the many researchers and planners who need to use it. Increasingly, GIS-format statewide archaeological databases are being created in the United States, but theoretical issues, data requirements, and methodological matters must be closely examined in an attempt to formulate the baseline requirements for predictive models that can be used as decision-support tools

Cornelius  Meyer : Eastern Atlas. Geophysical Prospection, Germany

By geophysics into the middle age - the castle of Koerich (Luxembourg)

To imagine the different construction states of historical buildings there are various ways. In the case of the Koerich castle situated in the western part of Luxembourg were planned photogrammetric studies to take the today´s state of the ruin and geophysical prospection to investigate the remains of not preserved constructions in the subsoil. In the quite small area of the castle courtyard (about 650 sqm) were applied three geophysical methods: geomagnetics, geoelectrics and ground-penetrating radar (GPR). The combination guarantees a high reliability of the results and allows detailed statements about location, depth and condition of the hidden remains. Unexpectedly geomagnetics didn´t yield useable results concerning the hidden foundations. Obviously the used sandstone hasn´t got any magnetic contrast to the surrounding soil. A very high magnetic anomaliy suspected of beeing the signals of a WWII arial bomb turned out to be caused by a foundation of a forgotten flagpole from the thirties. Geoelctrics and GPR yielded better results regarding the really aim of the prospection. GPR measurements were carried out with a profil distance of 0.5 m and resolution of 0.05 m inline using a SIR-10 equipment and a 500 MHz antenna. Profiles were layed out in two orthogonal directions. Geoelectrical dipole-dipole sections used the same profil lines but with distances of 1 m or 2 m. Geoelectrics can´t outstrip the spatial resolution of GPR but it´s necessary to localize the base of constructions which can´t be resolved by GPR. Areal GPR data usually are displayed by time slices or after a migration by depth slices. Geoelectrical sections are combined in vertical or horizontal sections of the courtyard. By combination of all geophysical results we obtained a detailed image of the contructions in the subsoil. Overlaying the images of geophysical data and including the information of building history and photogrammetry a base for 3D reconstruction of the castle will be arranged.

Iva  Mikl Curk : Archaeologist, Retired Professional in Protection of Monuments, Slovenia

A few experiences from the research of Roman Age in Slovenia

The facts, how ofteh could a phaenomenon occur in an environment, or which was the number of identical examples of a specific type observed in a layer etc. have always been of interest in archaeological research. Now the computer gives much help for analyses of this kind. But several experiences, made during past decades in our country on finding places with traces from the Roman Age, could give some useful advise, which questions should be asked and what answers could be expected, as among others: The numbers of sherds in a layer does not represent oe ipso  the number of vessels, contented in this layer. The rules in the production and distribution of Terra Sigillata are only in a part valid also for the other kinds of pottery, distributed by trade, and mostly not for local produced pottery. One should, even in large projects, where the fields of interest are strictly separated, before the analysing the quantities in diferent layers, be well informed, how every peculiar layer has been built (by sudden destruction or long decay, firmly covered with a construction of the next phase or laying open for a long period etc.). For the analysing of complete buildings, parts of settlements or even settlements as a whole the present resp. absent types of a particular period, can procure good evidence to the function of this building/s. But again the character of the archaeological record should be carefully considered: by large building activities f. e. the complete destroyed material of previous phases could be also in our conditions moved out of the area, or further, even cultural layers originating from an other spot could be brought in to the complex as the material for equalisation of levels. The extend of fields, adaptable for the growth of cereals in the area of four towns, Emona, Celeia, Neviodunum and Poetovio, can be in the specific countryside measured enough reliable. The quantity of cereals necessary to an legion during each winter period  in the first cent. is also enough well known. The author believes there could be some possibilities in these facts to get better evidence to Roman time economy and land use in today Slovenia. Graveyards, especially when complete known or even excavated, could be used with enough probability by the frequency of funeral gifts, the use of different types for such gifts etc. in conclusions about the way of funerals and other habits, ev. ethnic character of the respective group of population.

Majid  Mirmehdi, A. Chalmers, L. Barham, L. Griffiths : Dept. of Computer Science, UK

Measuring Degradation of Colour Pigments on Cave Walls

The absence of Upper Palaeolithic cave art in Britain may be the result of the  accelerated weathering of limestone caves during the Holocene. To test this proposition, it is intended to place mineral-based stencils in three Mendip caves and record monthly changes in pigment colour and adherence, and compare to seasonal variations in local climate. Conventional photography has proved to be an inadequate medium for recording changes to the pigments.  A high-resolution digital camera would facilitate digital image processing of the data and improve the accuracy and precision of the monitoring and evaluation. This paper reports on the proposed image analysis techniques which have been tested on pseudo-real data generated specifically for this project using a simple digital camera and stencils specifically drawn on cave walls. The analysis uses techniques such as edge detection to locate a colour chart. A circle detecting Hough transform is then applied to locate the circular stencils. Methods are employed to normalise the colour data to incorporate any environmental changes from one image capture session to another. After normalisation and colour data correction, the stencilled areas are segmented using k-means clustering and their colour and shape statistics are measured. These measurements can then be compared with the master image or data to record changes.

Dimitrij  Mleku ž : Department of Archaeology, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia

Dynamic GIS models for dynamic landscapes – case study: Ljubljana Moor

Paper approaches application of dynamic Geographical Information System (GIS) models at the reconstruction of palaeo floodplain dynamics. Traditional model of the Neolithic lakeside settlement on the Ljubljana Moor was challenged using dynamic GIS based model of stream migration. Implications of the modeled dynamic landscape related to the settlement patterns and perception of the landscape by the Neolithic men and women dwelling in it are discussed.

Susumu  Morimoto : , Japan

NARS – Nabunken Aerial Photograph Retrieval System – A Way to the GIS

Nara National Cultural Properties Research Institute (Japanese abbreviation: Nabunken) has an important collection of aerial photographs. After the World War II, some private company began to take aerial photographs for the mapping, investigations etc. Private companies have not enough space to conserve them. Then Nabunken stock these old records of the surface of all over Japan. This collection does not include the aerial photos by the governmental office for national mapping, Total number of the photo is about 1 million 800 thousands and we continue to make database about it. The original film is 10 inch square and difficult to treat. Then we make a microfilm from the original one. About 900 thousands pictures have micronized until now. We watch a microfilm and determinate the place where it was taken for the database. The data entry system make a coordination data from the map image. The retrieval system was separated from the entry system. Now we make a new system with the digital map image and the digitised image of each aerial photo. This system is for the data entry and the data retrieval. And also, this system is intranet system. We continue the long way for data entry and digitising the aerial photos for this real GIS method.

Umberto  Moscatelli : Dept. of Archaeology, University of Macerata, Italy

G.I.S. applications in some mountain environments of Italy

The mountain areas of the Marche Region represent an extremely conservative area under several points of view, then very promising for the research. Particularly considerable appear the strong place names continuity, a phenomenon clearly emerging from the comparison between the toponyms recorded in the medieval written docu-ments from the XIIIth century and those - numerous - listed in the books of the Catasto Gregoriano (end of the XVIII and the beginnings of the XIX century). The place named stored there, one can locate by means of the 1:2000 maps attached to the books, are linked to detailed information on the land-owners, on the landuse, on the productivity of the fields and in a general way on the productive areas, on the presence of the woods, on the roads, and so on. The collection of such information allows to achieve, by the means of place names location, a wide map of the landuse from the XIII century. This is the basis of a multi-phase project aimed to a G.I.S. management of the above data and illustrated in this paper. The Author describes, besides the general characteristics of the project, the problems arising from the treatment of the data and some recent results concerning the space organisation in Roman and Medieval times.

Branko  Mu š i č : Department of Archaeology, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia

Geophysics, archaeological survey, sampling, statistics and determination of on-site activity areas

The possibilities of applying a raster based GIS for interpreting the results of archaeological prospecting were tested on the Iron Age to Late Roman settlement site of Rodik – Ajdovscina, Slovenia. In this paper, results of our GIS testing on what appear to be different activity areas are presented. Different data sets were used for evaluation of archaeological potential by multivariate statistics (magnetometry, magnetic susceptibility, resistivity, surface distribution of ceramics and slag, magnetic, chemical and mineralogical analyses of small samples, etc.). Results of various prospections can be presented in a single image where relevant  archaeological spatial units (activity areas) will be discernable by spatially defined classes. All surface units convey information which comes from combination/correlation between different input data sets. The results will vary in terms of quality, but they enable both a comparison of the individual data layers and the generation of new information based upon the level of correlation between them. The output will therefore be a composite image of differing, but normalised input data. This could lead to partial automation of the interpretation procedure.

Nuccia  Negroni Catacchio, L. Guidetti, M. Camnasio, R. Ferrari, M. van Leusen : l’Universita degli Studi di Milano , Italy

European Archaeological Field Work Server

Starting in 1997, CILEA (Consorzio Interuniversitario Lombardo per l'Elaborazione Automatica) and the Universita degli Studi di Milano, Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Antichita began work on a field work opportunities database that would be accessible over the Internet. Part of the EC project ArcheoNet (archweb.leidenuniv.nl/archeonet), the starting-point for the work was the obvious need for students as well as researchers looking for fieldwork projects to contact any European organisations promoting fieldwork and surveys directly rather than through various slow-moving and erratic intermediaries. An on-line database, using a web forms interface, was decided to offer the best means for bringing research projects to the attention of students from all over Europe. The first release of the project, then named EARP, was demonstrated during the CAA97.  Since then, the site has gone through two reviews in order to increase performance and functionality. The first review ended in September 1998, and resulted in a faster and more efficient navigation and an easier database management (http://archeonet.cilea.it/archeosite). In November 1999 the site was adopted by another EC project (ArchTerra) and subjected to a second restructuring stage aimed at simplifying and automated the service. The purpose of the current paper is to present the design and features of the restructured service, emphasising the changes made since November.

James M Newhard : Wiener Laboratory, Greece

A Study into the Transference of Munsell Color Designations to Chromaticity Coordinates

The Munsell system has shown to be a inexpensive, quick, standardized method of reading and reporting the color of an archaeological object or assemblage. However, the system has limits. Changing lighting conditions and variations within the artifact’s fabric can alter the reading. Different people can see different shades of the same color, giving different readings for the same material. Given the possible variances, the Munsell designations are best used as a rough guide as to an item’s color. General color designations are unsuitable in cases when the quantification of color is deemed important. Efforts to use corlorimeters have shown to be useful in laboratory environments, but their application in the field has been often both cost prohibitive and difficult due to the inability to control varying lighting conditions. A field method for accurately measuring color (or at least controlling the variability) still eludes us. The method presented has been determined to be an effective means of quantifying, describing, and controlling the variance observed using the Munsell color system. In this method, Munsell values are transferred to the Y, x, y values of the chromaticity coordinate system. The resulting numerical values can then be manipulated using standard statistical analyses. In testing this method, 20 subjects were given a set of 12 artifacts to measure with the Munsell system. Transference of the Munsell readings to chromaticity coordinates enabled the author to quantifiably determine the variance and mean of subjects’ resoonses, as well as to determine color-based artifact groupings through cluster analysis. Applications for this method are numerous and broad, including the study of firing temperatures in ceramics, and the quantification of color variability amongst lithic artifacts. This method could also be used as a “quality control” measure when several members of a project are measuring color for the same body of material.

Franco  Niccolucci, Marco Crescioli , Andrea D'Andrea : University of Florence, Italy

Web access to an archaeological GIS

In a previous paper the authors discussed the use of a commercial package enabling web access to GIS, applying it to the study of an archaeological case. For the high cost of the package (tested in a limited-time demo version) a permanent version of the site was not created. However, the experiment was very promising and met the consensus of the audience to which it was presented. In the present paper the authors propose to use the public domain GIS GRASS and the GRASSLink package, freely available under GNU public licence, which enables web access to the GIS. The GIS may also be linked to the free RDBMS Postgres, which also has a web interface, in order to provide a completely web-accessible DBMS/GIS system at no cost. This will enable publication of GIS and database data, up to now made almost impossible by the high costs of web interfaces to most common GIS, thus allowing public access to archives both in alphanumeric and graphic form. Standardisation issues are also addressed, to document completely the data formats for user access and future archival, conforming to accepted standards for archaeological digital data conservation. The paper examines also the enhancement of data description using XML, which allows a unified approach to structured data, texts and spatial data. The process has been applied to an archaeological GIS derived from previous research, which has been transferred to the required format and published on the Internet, where it can be accessed using the above described packages. The consequences of this approach on archaeological research are briefly discussed. In our opinion, remotely accessing a GIS might encourage co-operative research work and increase data re-use and knowledge dissemination towards users with no database/GIS skill, who could access data also with a limited knowledge of the data structure by means of the standard, well-known interface of Internet browsers.

Franco  Niccolucci, Marco Crescioli , Andrea D'Andrea : University of Florence, Italy

Archaeological applications of fuzzy spatial databases and GIS

The application of fuzzy logic in archaeology has a great potential, to process uncertain or partially determined data, but so far has received little attention, except in some viewshed analysis studies. Recent developments in database theory have addressed this topic and can have interesting applications in archaeological databases and GIS, as the authors already noticed in a previous paper. As a matter of fact, many of the concepts and relations currently used in archaeological analysis have an inherently fuzzy nature and many of the attributes stored in databases have imprecise values. Ordinary databases and GIS do not manage adequately these features, so we propose to integrate the traditional database and GIS tools with fuzzy attributes and relations. In many cases, moreover, archaeological data derive from statistical analysis (for instance, ostheological data) and an inadequate treatment may produce misleading results. After discussing the main features of the proposed fuzzy logic approach, we consider the example of an Etruscan cemetery and introduce fuzzy attributes and fuzzy relationships in the database, involving also spatial features of the data. The assignment of values to these attributes is discussed in detail, showing how ostheological analysis may be correctly used for this purpose. This approach is then generalised, inserting general fuzzy attributes and relationships into the structure of a RDBMS and creating the necessary functions to manipulate them. We used for this the public domain Postgres RDBMS, GRASS GIS and PostGRASS, a set of functions to connect them, adding special functions of our own creation. So every researcher may use, at no cost, our improved database. Moreover, all the software has an easy-to-use graphical interface, developed in Tcl/Tk. The system has been applied to the above archaeological example, showing how it can be used to investigate this case study, for instance to analyse specific palaeodemography aspects.

Predrag  Novakovic : Department of Archaeology, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia

GIS and the changing patterns of territoriality: The hillforts in Kras (karst), SW Slovenia

The appearance of hillforts – the first monumental constructions in the Kras landscape – is dated to the beginnings of the Bronze Age (the first centuries of the 2nd millennium BC). Once constructed, the hillforts remained by far the most dominant type of settlement until the arrival of the Romans in the 1st century B.C. This paper focuses on the territorial organization of settlement and, consequently, on social organization as expressed in patterns of territoriality. Prior to the Late Bronze Age there is hardly any evidence for hierarchical organisation in the settlement pattern. The 2nd millennium settlement system appears to consist of a mosaic of individual setlement niches. It is posited that the basic social and settlement unit there was based on the lineage or extended family. The 1st millennium BC settlement pattern exhibits different features in settlement and community organization. The analysis of cemeteries has demonstrated the existence of settlements, occupied by multi-lineage communities from the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. On the other hand, historical sources record civitates in the Kras area at least for the 1st century A.D. Clearly, we are dealing here with a process of aggregation of traditional descent groups into larger social units. This process went hand-in-hand with the process of increased social differentiation between lineages, the appearance of central places and with aggregation of smaller territorial units into larger (community) territories. In an attempt to reveal the changing territoriality, we based our analysis on three archaeologically attested premises: 1) Potential centres of community territories have formal and quantifiable features in common, which can also serve as criteria for isolating central places. 2) In the Kras, the territorial organization of prehistoric settlement is to a great extent determined by geomorphology. 3)  Settlement size (the surface of the walled area, implying the amount of the work invested in rampart construction) and the size of the population occupying it, exhibits a positive correlation. Based on Slapsak's (1988, 1995) studies of the Rundictes (a late prehistoric and early Roman community in the SE part of the Kras) a model was developed for identifying potential centres of territorial communities. It was based on a series of quantifiable and non-quantifiable criteria. These included relative hillfort size compared to that of neighbouring hillforts, the size of viewsheds and classes of visually controlled areas from the centre, the continuity into the Roman period, the presence of a cemetery, the complexity of the internal plan of the settlement, presence of the 2nd millennium occupation etc. 15 potential centres were isolated in this way and nearest neighbour analysis demonstrated a high level of uniformity in their distribution across the landscape (premise 1). In further analysis, an attempt was made to define communal territories by applying Thiessen polygons (drawn from the centres) and by considering geomorphological features in the landscape (premise 2). The final step comprised the summing up of all walled areas within individual community territories and applying a regression analysis between the areas of community territories and their respective sums of walled areas (premise 3). The result of the analysis demonstrated rather strong positive correlation between the variables. The community territories exhibit 2 major patterns - a 'large, single settlement' pattern and a 'multi-settlement' pattern. The first describes a situation with one very large settlement in the community territory (5 times larger or more, than the second ranked settlement), which was probably occupied by all or most of the population. The second pattern (the largest settlement is only 2-3 times larger than the second ranked settlement) exhibits a different hierarchy, in which the rank-size curve is much closer to the rank-size rule.

Stelios A Pantelopoulos, Antiklia Agrafioti : SINGULAR SA, Greece

Extending the use of archaeological applications on the field

This paper presents a proposed solution of extending the use of existing archaeological applications from the LAN established in the in-house laboratory into the excavation field exploiting and adopting the capabilities of the Wireless Local A ea Networks (WLAN). This solution will be piloted in the excavation of Akrotiri, Thera in Greece. Many excavations (like the excavation of Akrotiri) dispose near the field considerable laboratories, which are used to store, manage and exploit all the important information, resulted from the everyday work on the field. All this information, consisting of a large amount of digital content, is exploitable through a number of software applications such as multimedia DBs, GIS, CAD and other useful back office or front office tools. In most cases the access to this information is possible only from the local area network of the laboratory, when many times the users (the archaeologists) will need to access this information by the time they are on the field. Sometimes also they need to send information into the server in order to be accessed by other users (i.e. send a photo from the field taken with a digital camera). Carrying a ‘disconnected’ from the LAN laptop into the field the archaeologist can have access only to stand alone applications and to local data. The installation of a WLAN ‘upgrade’ the laptop to a mobile - inside the excavation field - workstation having access to all the network resources, applications and facilities. The main advantages of the use and installation of a WLAN in the excavation fields which is impossible to install and maintain LAN cables in the hole area are:  the offer of a flexible and cost-effective alternatives to the LAN cable which supports 1-2Mbps (transfer rate),  the speed and ease with which new LANs could be created or new computers can be added  the capability of moving around the field without loosing the access to the server and without the need to be wired.

Jan  Persson : Stadsantikvariska avdelningen Kultur Malmö, Sweden

Surveying at the Öresund-bridge project

In southern Scandinavia has especially large investments of infrastructure nature within communications resulted in huge archaeological excavations on both Danish and Swedish mainland. The narrow strait between Zealand (Denmark) and Scania (Sweden) has during the last five years been the construction site for a connecting bridge opening in July this year. The Department of Archaeology in Malmö has been carrying out a number of archaeological excavations in connection to the bridgefoundation and along a new highway around the city of Malmö. During 1995 and 1996 studies of archives and preliminary investigations took place in an attempt to limit the coming areas of excavation. The actual fieldwork took place in 1997 to 1999. During this years a number of 36 sites, with a total area of more than one million square meters, have been excavated by approximately 100 archaeologists.  From where the bridge reaches land to the end of the investigation-area is a distance of twenty-two kilometres consisted of a varying land with flat coastal areas, agricultural plains and slopes of hills. These extensive excavations under a limited time demanded an adjustment to modern surveying technology and applied processing of databases. Under the first actual excavation year 1997 fifteen different sites were excavated. On fourteen of these surveying was made with one-man operated totalstations. During the seasons we have had, depending on the number of simultaneously investigations in progress, between ten to fifteen totalstations. Every station have generated, under the most intensive period of surveying, an estimated figure of 1500 measured points each day. In order to have the whole surveyingprocess to function without any major errors it was necessary to use an already tested system. The National Board of Antiques had under a couple of years used a simple partial own-developed system that at this time had been abandoned for a new developed integrated Surveyingsystem. Due to different attitudes within The National Board of Antiques the new system was not allowed to be used outside the national organisation and we were obliged to the older system based on Dos. The young archaeologists with whole of their computer knowledge based on Windows or Apples found the dosbased programs to be difficult to handle. This obstacle was helped by Instruction-manuals in plain terms. At present reports are put together and these will result in numerous publications in this and coming years.

Manio  Pessina : , Italy

Castellaro del Vho’, Piadena (CR): GIS application

The land under investigation in this case is the Castellaro site located in the municipality of Piadena (province of Cremona) in which since 1890 the existence was ascertained of a Bronze Age built-up area and which since 1995 is the object of excvation campaigns by the Municipal Archaeologic Museum of Milan. The attendance of a Geographic Information Systems and Landscape Archaeology course in 1998, organised by the University of Trieste, Departement of Antiquity Sciences, and held by Dr. Zoran Stancic, was the starting point in the drawing-up of a spatial analysis of the Castellaro del Vho site, obtained through the use of a Geographical Information System in which all the land and cartographic data collected from 1995 to 1998 came together. The land chosen for the analysis carried out in this case is the Castellaro site (for a total of some 72.800 square meters). The land boundaries are delimited as follows: * on the south and east sides by the Molino Vecchio road which leads to the River Oglio; * on the north and west sides by two small ditches which intercross forming a right angle on the north-west: the first one is east-west oriented, the second one has a south-north orientation. The specific goals of the analysis are: * evaluating the agricultural activities impact, particulary those which brought about a morphologic resettlement of the site in 1992, on the preservation of the data perceivable from surface archaeology; * considering the built-up area characteristics, in the absence of exhaustive archaeologic excavations, in the light of the comparison of information stemming from: 1. geomorphologic prospecting 2. surface survey 3. aerial photographs 4. previous excavation campaigns carried out towards the end of the 19th century/ beginning of this century, using methods and types of documentation differing from the present ones. The processing of data and the analysis have enabled to achieve the results which are briefly numerised herebelow: 1. the digital elevation models worked out whith altimetrical contours assessed in 1995 and with the points dimensioned in 1992 before the levelling was carried out have evidenced the deep transformation of the site morphology brought about by the 1992 levelling operations. Moreover a correspondence has been evidenced, which needs further confirmation, between the old morphology, which can be traced back through the core borings, and the one which is shown by the land digital elevation model before the 1992 works. 2. The processing of the results of the surface survey, the comparison with the aerial photos, the DEM and the location plans showing the boundaries of the areas which were more affected by the 1992 agricultural levelling operations, have evidenced: * a good degree of reliability of the data emerging from the surface survey, if considered in the light of the aerial photos and the documentation of the agricultural works carried out in 1992. * A land outside the built-up area surrounded by embankment and ditch, corresponding to the low-lying zone highlighted in the aerial photos, where the 1992 levelling operations removed few inches of agricultural terrain, caracterised by a high density of finds, in situ archaeologic units and finds which can be attributed chronologically to the Recent Bronze Age. 1. the interpretation of the tracks which can be seen in the aerial photos subjected to image processing has evidenced the existence of a built-up area covering about 2,400 hectares surrounded by a ditch and at least by an embankment; furthermore the presence has been assumed of additional structures, some of them pertaining perhaps to an extension of the built-up area (ditch, embankment), other ones with different functional characteristics (access to the built-up area); finally the following has been evidenced: the presence of a low-lying zone outside the settlement surrounded by ditch-embankment-ditch, a recent fluvial canal crossing the built-up area, the marks of a palaeo river-bed whose presence is proved in the built-up area centre also by excavations and core borings. 2. The positioning of the trenches excavated in 1910-12 on the aerial photos and a second reading of the remarks by the old archaeologists Castelfranco e Patroni of the evidences found in them have enabled to prove the existence of settlement traces also outside the built-up area surrounded by embankment and ditch, to justify the conclusions drawn by the excavators in 1916, to assume the locations of the trenches excavated in 1890 wich are not shown in the 1916 location plan. 3. The processing and the analysis of the sequence of the various units found in the core borings compared with aerial photos has evidenced the correspondence between the emergence of certain units and tracks of the structure, the inside of built-up area, the tracks of the palaeo-river beds. The comparison between the positioning ofr the core borings and of the Castelfranco-Patroni trenches has ascertained that no core boring should have intercepted them.

John  Peterson : School of Information Systems, UK

Design and performance of the varatioscope

Some Roman land surveys (centuriations) appear to have been used to plan features of the same period which are oblique to the survey grid. This method of oblique construction, documented by the Roman land surveyors and known in Latin as "uaratio", restricts the orientations of the features, relative to the grid, to a small set of "significant" angles with rational tangents. Useful information may therefore be gained by studying a set of linear features, such as segments of Roman roads or boundary lines, from various angles to see how well they conform to this model. The varatioscope is designed to give a score for each angle of observation, high scores corresponding to an angle to which the features, as a whole, have a large number of "significant" relationships. It can be used in two ways, either to test a hypothesys of centuriation or to suggest such a hypothesis, corresponding to a peak in the varatiogram. The paper describes the construction of the varatioscope as a Excel spreadsheet, results obtained, and the sensitivity of the tool to the choice of "significant" angles.

Andrej  Pleterski : Scientific Research Centre of the Slovene Academy of Sciences and Arts, Slovenia

Researching of the dynamical structures. Case of the merovingian cemetery Altenerding

A cemetery is an artefact, which is the product of many processes. One may reconstruct them with the set of property's pictures put in the right sequences. The processes change their contents. This changes are the borders of more stable minor historico-cultural units. One may then find the laws of burying, of which the space organisation is the most important for our understanding of the passed life.

Mike J Pringle : English Heritage, UK

Using Virtual Reality to Improve Public Access to Heritage Databases over the Internet

The continuing development of the Internet, and its associated technologies, is spawning a correspondingly rapid growth in new business approaches to its use. In the Heritage industry this growth is dominated by a desire to make data more widey available, and a necessity to find practical, efficient and usable ways to do so. This paper presents a project that is currently experimenting with a novel approach to the presentation of archaeological material over the Internet. The project is assessing the possibilities of constructing a public access interface, on the World Wide Web, using familiar, real-world metaphors to represent sets of data. The metaphors, representing sets such as monument types or geographical areas, are placed in a virtual reality (VR), three-dimensional space where the user may explore them at will. This approach allows a user to 'fly' through; for example, a town composed of generic monument types of a specified time period. Once a particular model has been selected the choice may be changed, or refined by geographical and temporal constraints, and a list of corresponding monuments then requested. In essence the models are simply filtering mechanisms designed to illustrate certain sets or sub-sets of data. The depiction of these filters as easily recognisable models, with clear labelling, presents a contextual picture of the underlying data that imparts a high-level of information value at the interface. The user, even with little or no specialist knowledge, is able to navigate information in a quick, friendly, and productive manner. For Internet compatibility the VR modelling is being conducted using SVR format. The models are embedded in Java/HTML web-pages and run, via a widely available plug-in, under standard web-browsers.

Michael J Rains : York Archaeological Trust, UK

Web Based Site Recording and Collections Management in Edinburgh and York

Over the last two years, the Integrated Archaeological Database System (IADB) has been developed as a web server application for use on an intranet or with wider internet access via an internet service provider (ISP). A first report on this work was given at CAA 1999 in Dublin. This paper will present two very different examples of recent developments and applications of the system. At the York Archaeological Trust the impetus to develop the system as a web server application came from the need to provide access to a central finds recording and collections management system from three sites connected in a wide area network by relatively slow kilostream links. The system now contains over 120,000 "small finds" records from over 20 years of excavation mainly within the city of York. A similar number of "bulk finds" records are currently being loaded. Excavations on the site of the new Scottish Parliament building adjacent to Holyrood Palace in central Edinburgh have been undertaken jointly by Headland Archaeology of Edinburgh and SUAT Limited of Perth as part of the Holyrood Archaeological Project. During the excavation phase, the IADB was installed on a small intranet on site. Post-execavation work is now being undertaken by both Headland and SUAT with workers at SUAT's offices in Perth accessing the IADB database at Headland's offices in Edinburgh via the internet. In both cases, the implementation details of the system will be described and the facilities available within the software will be demonstrated.

Dwight W Read : Dept. of Anthropology, USA

Theory of Artifacts and a Method of Artifact Classification: A New Answer to an Old Problem

Despite the centrality of artifact classification in archaeological research, an adequate theory of artifacts has yet to be developed. The rudiments of such a theory can be found in the emic/cultural criteria to be used for artifact classification, as argued by Rouse and others. Though the relationship between artifact classification and cultural context was recognized early on in artifact classification the analytical means to implement a theory of artifacts was lacking and depended upon an intuitive approach to classification. The push for objectivity associated with the New Archaeology led to "theory-free" approaches based on object clustering methods. However, this simply substituted one kind of intuition for another, despite claims to the contrary, as the object clustering methods lacked a solid foundation in a theory of artifacts. In this paper I outline a theory of artifacts as it relates to classification of artifacts and demonstrate a method for artifact classification based on this theory. The method is not algorithmic and theory free, but theory dependent and context specific and raises fundamental questions about what we mean by the term, artifacts.

Cheryl A Ross : Department of Archaeology, UK

Modelling Late Upper Palaeolithic Colonisation in Central Europe: case study of the Carpathian Basin

Colonisation studies have become an integral part of prehistoric archaeology. The challenge is to seek to understand the relationships between human social behaviour, space and time. This is not an easy task for researchers whose database is often limited by both sparseness, and quality of preservation, of the material record, and few (if any) comparable ethnographical references. Yet, spatial modelling and improved radiocarbon dating techniques have led to a higher level of understanding of the human use of space, and chronology in the Upper Palaeolithic. In this research, the role of the Carpathian Basin in the human colonisation of Central Europe during Oxygen Isotope Stage II is examined. Spatial modelling techniques and radiocarbon evidence are used to establish the timing of colonisation, and the rates and direction of population spread.  The potential role of the Carpathian Basin as a place of refuge is also addressed.

Corinne F Roughley : Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, UK

Understanding the Neolithic landscape of the Carnac region: a GIS approach

The Neolithic monuments of the Carnac region of Brittany are the focus of an internationally important archaeological landscape. For a study of the monument locations and their inter-relationship, the region poses considerable challenges for traditional GIS approaches due to the gently undulating nature of the topography and the large number of monuments. An appreciation of landform shape and context is crucial to understanding this landscape and the place of the monuments within it. Simple topographic measures (for example, the traditional elevation, slope and aspect) are inadequate for describing a monument location. In this paper, methods for characterising the shape of the terrain are presented. When the positions of the neolithic monuments are compared with other non-site locations, they are found to occupy specific and definable types of location. Landform shape has an important effect on the perception and experiencing of a location. The approach to a monument by a person is considered. Views to and from each monument need to be investigated at a range of scales, and the influence of visibility of site location examined. The relationship between the orientation and size of monuments and their local landscape environment has also been investigated. In this approach, the inter-correlation of visibility measures with other topographic characteristic needs to be understood. The effectiveness of any study such as this rests on the resolution and accuracy of the digital terrain model in its representation of the neolithic lansdscape.

Gabriele Scharrer , Elfriede H Huber : Interdisziplinaeres Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie der Universitaet Wien, Forschungsgesellschaft Wiener Stadtarchaeologie, Austria

The medieval fortifications of Vienna in the Area of the „Albertina“ and it’s Documentation

During the implementation of construction works for the study wing of the “Albertina” accompanying investigations and excavations were held during which a tower of the medieval town fortification and the appropriate trench were brought to the surface. The tower dates back to the 13 h century  as a result of it’s construction method and the findings discovered within it. At around 1600 it was pulled down in the course of the erection of the fortification situated between „Augustinerbastion“ and „Burgbastion“. Time pressure caused by the ongoing construction works forced us to use time-saving and unconventional (graphic) methods of documentation: The tower walls as well as the profile of the trench were photographed with stereo cameras and middle format cameras. The exact surveying of control points enables the rectification of the taken photos and the production of true to scale orthophotos and drawings. The final documentation  and analysis will be completed in cooperation by the Forschungsgesellschaft Wiener Stadtarchaeologie (Elfriede Hannelore Huber)  and the Interdisziplinaere Einrichtung für Archaeologie der Universitaet Wien (Gabriele Scharrer).

Helene  Simoni, Kosta s Papagiannopoulos :

Can schoolchildren digitise their history?

Archaeology at Greek schools usually operates in the frame of History lesson as a discipline which produces material suitable for illustrating History textbooks. However, during the last two decades, Primary and Secondary education teachers all over Greece do make an effort to change the situation by setting up Local History projects in schools through the Environmental Education optional lessons. These projects allow the students to approach the past in a more natural way, that is through the study of the sources and first hand material. The community itself is involved in the projects either as a geographical place where the children's activities are located and referred to or as a source of a different perspective which enhances the school's worldview. After a long experience in such projects we had the chance to write a manual on "Local History at Schools" which the Pedagogic Institute of the Greek Ministry of Education will distribute in High Schools throughout Greece next school year. The concept of the manual is that Local History cannot be taught, but is to be discovered by the children themselves who will carry out research in their regions. Children will explore the spatial and temporal dimension of Local History and will disseminate it to the public through various activities. This will accomplish not only a pedagogic goal of acquiring more knowledge, but a primary research goal of Regional Studies, that is the recording of information (such as settlement relocations, population changes, micro-toponyms, old paths and tracks, land-use etc.) by interviewing their relatives or acquaintances. Such evidence is not easily accessible to external researchers who usually need to spend much time (and money) in a community until they earn the confidence of the locals. To this direction the application of GIS will offer a useful and challenging tool to handle spatial information and will additionally introduce children to basic concepts of real world representation.

Valerica  Sirbu, Angelica Balos : Muzeul Brailei, Romania

	Funeral practices of the Geta-Dacian graveyards
	The paper describes the trials we have made in which we use computers to ascertain more knwledge about Geta-Dacian's funeral practices, given that the literary sources often contain little relevant information.

Bozidar  Slap š ak, Miran Eri č , Darja Grosman : Department of Archaeology, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia

Ancient regular land divisions: Landscape microanalysis and computing. The case of the chora of Pharos

Landscape microanalysis has been proposed as a concept in the field of ancient regular land divisions studies, intended to account for research of landscape structure and dynamics within and between modular units of the regular grids, combinig field survey (landscape structures survey, environmental survey and archaeological survey), GIS based generation of sets of correlated data, and computer aided metrological research. While observation of structural properties of land division within modular units is an obvious exercise in cases of fossile regular landscapes such as those in Crimea or in North Africa, the procedure has yet to be developed to its full potential for the majority of cases which have known continuous occupation since the antiquity, in the Mediterranean and beyond. An attempt in this direction by the University of Ljubljana team in the chora of the Greek colony of Pharos (island of Hvar, Croatia) is presented in this paper. While exceptional for its good preservation, the landscape there is typical in terms of the natural environment (Mediterranea Carst) and agricultural practices (terracing). It is argued that besides aiming at goals specific of the analysis at this level (dynamics of landscape morphology, postdepositional change in the geometry of ancient land division, units of landed property, rural settlement and land use), we can thus generate a powerful feed-back to verify our observations and interpretations on the macro-level (gromatic principles and techniques, rural economy, communications, historical context and phasing).

Dean R Snow : Penn State, USA

Setting Demographic Limits: The North American Case

The size of the aboriginal population of North America in 1492 is a controversial issue. Estimates for the portion of the continent north of Mexico range from 1-18 million. A few scholars argue for very high numbers, usually by assertion and in the absence of empirical evidence. Many others argue that the higher estimates are preposterous, but usually atheoretically and on the basis of negative evidence. I argue that explicit theory and simple mathematical modeling allows us to establish a means to assess upper population limits at local, regional, and continental scales. This approach, along with rare empirical tests, allows us to conclude with greater confidence that the 1492 population size was near the lower end of the range, around 2 million.

Zoran  Stan č i č , Tatjana Veljanovski, Kri š tof O š tir, Toma ž Podobnikar : Scientific Research Centre of the Slovene Academy of Sciences and Arts, Slovenia

Archaeological predicting modelling for highway construction planning

The main objective of this paper is to present some results on the application and methodology of archaeological predictive modelling in Slovenian highway network planning. Recent analysis of Slovenian highway construction budget has shown considerable and constant increase in archaeological fieldwork expenses. According to state concern on cost diminution, we were asked to design simple and effective methodology for archaeological site prediction. The results of a predictive model were used for consideration of the possible changes of highway location and optimal planning of archaeological field work methodologies.

Florin  Stanescu : , Romania

Sanctuaries in virtual reality. Sarmizegutusa-regia and Costesti, Romaina

The ancient capital of the Dacians’, Sarmizegetusa-Regia, lies in the Orastie Mountains, Romania. The Dacian kingdom was conquered by the Roman Emperor Traian, after two wars waged between him and the Dacian king Decebal, at the beginning of the 2nd century A.D.  The unfolding of these wars had been stone immortalised, on the Traian’s Column erected in Rome, Italy. Although it had been known by the local inhabitants for a long time, the impressive complex of ruins at Sarmizegetusa-Regia and Costesti, in the Orastie Mountains was not mentioned in the literature until the first years of the XIX-th century, when the great hoard of Koson-Lisimachos golden coins was found there. The complex is made up of three main sections: a civil settlement, the fortress and the so-called sacred terrace with the great sanctuaries. The Dacian fortress' walls, built and shaped as the Greek walls, were extended after the conquest in order to protect the powerful Roman camp placed there. Consequently, we have nowadays at Sarmizegetusa-Regia and Costesti a similar wall type, but with two constructors, wherefrom the complex aspects of the situation existent here. Among these buildings, - Sarmizegetusa  Regia - erected on the X-th and XI-th terraces, we come across the Great Limestone Sanctuaries (with 4 rows of 15 plinths), the Small Limestone Sanctuary (with 3 rows of 6 plinths), the Great Round Sanctuary, with a diameter of almost 30 m, the Small Round Sanctuary -with a diameter of almost 13 m,  two other rectangular andesite sanctuaries, the Great Rectangular Andesite Sanctuary ( with 6 rows of 10 elements each) built on top of an older limestone sanctuary and, last but not least, the altar- sundial known as The Andesite Sun. The archaeological discoveries have proved that these sanctuaries are not a singular case in the cultic and spiritual life of the Dacians. Sanctuaries are also present at Costesti (Great Limesstone Sanctuary and three Small Limestone Sanctuary), Racos, Brad, Barbosi Galati, Fetele Albe, Pustiosu, Batca Doamnei, but of smaller size of course, and lacking the stateliness of those at Sarmizegetusa - Regia. Within the frame of a larger project intending the creating and administrating of larger databases - the Astro-Dacia project which other Romanian universities and museums also join -  the paper has in view to mould by means of modern computer technical devices, o possible reality of what used to be here in antiquity. The creating of a virtual model of some of the sanctuaries, as well as of the fortress, generally speaking, crosses the several necessary stages, actually compulsory stages, as are the simulating of a probable reality and then the testing of the outcomes through methods of mathematical moulding. The first stage is being facilitated by the existence of some accurate topographic releveés done by specialists at the Centre of Projections, Deva, dated 1984. There are being used databases comprising dimensional elements dated from the historical period: I century BC - I century AD. Given the fact that there existed numerous attempts of reconstituting, belonging to several authors and researchers, there will be also done a comparison of the outcomes, through the moulding presented in the paper, by the above mentioned authors.

Cornelius  Steckner : , Germany

Arcaeological Dataspaces

Not every virtual space neccessarily has to be an image of the geographical world. Information visualization may produce navigable virtual worlds. These may be three-dimensional, like architectural or geographical space, or multidimensional. These visualize quantitiy or quality, the contents or the meaning of data by selforganizing processes (e.g. Kohonen Maps). Among the techniques the are some which are directly applicable to archaeological data, meeting functional information.

Austin  Tony, Keith Westcott : The Archaeology Data Service, UK

'Rescue Archaeology' at the ADS: The Newham Archive

When the Newham Museum Archaeological Service was closed down in 1998 its digital archive was passed to the Archaeology Data Service by the London Borough of Redbridge. The archive represents some 10 years of fieldwork and incorporates the work of other units that had previously been closed including those associated with the Passmore Edwards Museum and the Manor Valley Museum. The archive as delivered consists of over 250 floppy disks containing several thousand files. The files are in a variety of proprietary software formats and versions therein some of which are now 'archaic'. Problematically no funding accompanied this important collection to ensure its preservation and the provision of access. Effectively the ADS has been thrown into a traditional 'rescue' situation that has often confronted archaeologists in the past. As usual there is some urgency to the 'rescue' as floppy disks are volatile and have a limited lifespan. There is a pressing need to move the data onto a more secure medium. Similarly migrating the data to current standards and formats becomes progressively more difficult with time as the original files become increasingly remote from current technology. The paper will consider the problems of saving Newham and relate this to the wider context of the curation of digital archives.

Vuk M Trifkovic : Institute of Archaeology, University of Oxford, UK

Re-creating the wetlandscapes: Environmental Reconstruction and Sensory Geographies of the Fenlands

Inspite of huge conceptual and practical advancements in dealing with space and environment, archaeology has found itself in an absurd position. The advances both on the practical (environmental archaeology cf.Evans and O'Connor 1999) and conceptual (cf.Gosden 1994; Tilley 1994; Thomas 1996) front have resulted in a rapprochement, not a creative synergy. One can hardly disagree with the criticisms levelled at the environmental archaeology on the accounts of its lacking proper articulation of social, symbolic, economic and functional aspects of interaction between ‘nature and humanity’ (Butler 1995, 15; Thomas 1990, 3). Yet while the very same critics are rallying ‘back to the things themselves’ (Gosden 1994, 11) there is a dose of laziness in attempt to engage with the particulars (Fleming 1999). Leaving a sour impression of the endless posturing and empty rhetoric. It is this very imbalance I would like to redress through strategically deploying of a diverse range of palaeo-environmental techniques, within a well defined, and archaeologically well investigated, region. I would like to introduce thinking of the reconstruction of environment as the way to capture the basic context of everyday actions and practices (cf. Barrett 1994) and an incentive to think about the ‘sensuous status’ of these places, the range of possible textures, smells, vistas, soundscapes, in way feels of a place (cf. Rodaway 1994). Through actively imagining and engaging with the landscape while reconstructing it, laying a much more solid foundation for a seriously embodied, non-dichotomous and sensuous picture of the past. The Fenland case study: Flag Fen basin in the northern Cambridgeshire represents well-defined and manageable unit of study, with excellent preservation conditions, long-standing history of investigation and clear set of archaeological questions formulate (Pryor 1992)set within the context of highly specific and now completely transformed Fenland landscape. The Landscape without a ‘ready phenomenology’ whose ‘bones’ are not upholding the structure of the past environments (Tilley 1994, 73-4). Thus the attempt to reconstruct such radically different places becomes crucial. Here I wish to focus on more manageable, and nonetheless interesting, Neolithic and Iron Age periods. Role of GIS: The overwhelming strength of GIS lies within its massive integrative potential and the ability to create a data rich environment (Lock in early CAA). First of all I propose its use as a platform gathering variety of the environmental data. Moreover, it can be used for presentation of the palaeo-environmental reconstruction, most obviously through the mapping out of palaeo-environmental zones, establishing the eventual patterning and re-interpret the features in context of more detailed reconstruction. Further inroads towards the sensory geographies of the places requires further steps. In order to represent and estimate the sensory impact of the environmental zones one possible solution is the fuzzy re-classification and buffering around the environmetal zones, acting as a ‘sensory hotspots’. Ideally, the next step would be to proceed towards potentially more embodied, subject centred, and visually much more rewarding 3D visualisation and virtual reality modelling (Gillings and Goodrick 1996). Construction of a virtual past locale would in itself engender more detailed reconstruction of the environment and more importantly force us to think about the ‘things themselves’, their appearances, shapes, textures and colours, their surfaces (sensu Gibson 1986, 28). As well as introducing the potential for representation of other, non visual sensuous elements, in the first place sounds, but textures and feels as well (Clarke 1998). Eventually escaping the visualistic overtones, prevailing in the much of the current VR technology (Gillings and Goodrich 1996).

Vangelis G Tsakirakis : Landscape Archaeology Group, Greece

Using a Relational Database Management System for the recording of ancient settlements and sites at the Vrachneika territory in Western Greece

During the study of the local history and archaeology of western Achaia, Greece, by the workgroup of Landscape Archaeology Group (LAG), an Access 97-database application was used for the recording of archaeological sites at the territory of modern villages Vrachneika and Monodendri. The application was characterized by advanced capabilities of data entry, like topographical maps of the sites, pictures of the finds, reports, indexing of the related bibliography, etc. There was also capability of selected data research, for example of sites of the same chronology, or sites with the same findings. Some quantitative remarks over the numerical data were also attainable with the use of statistical graphs. Finally, all the data entries of the sites could be printed in reports or be sent to other software applications (Word, Excel etc.) for advanced processing.

André P. Tschan : Institute of Archaeology, UK

The Potential of Object-Oriented GIS in Archaeology

Currently, the topic of Object-Orientation (OO) and particularly Object-Oriented Geographic Information Systems (OOGIS) garners considerable interest in archaeology.  However, in the case of the latter there is a distinct lack of concrete and tangible research that would identify its potential as an effective or useful tool.  For the most part, this marked absence of any archaeological case studies employing an OOGIS actually reflects the, at present, scarce product range rather than deliberate disregard on behalf of archaeologists to embrace this technology.  Despite this limited access to affordable and commercially available software, stymieing wider development of OOGIS for archaeological investigations, there is already a substantial recognition of this tool’s unique inherent power based on various theoretical assessments and preliminary experimentation with products on hand.  This paper goes beyond the already established introductions regarding the fundamental principles and the main structural components of Object-Oriented GIS.  The intention is to present the results obtained from an ongoing project that actively engages an OOGIS package as part of the overall research program.  The emphasis for this work does not rely on the specific archaeological conclusions drawn but focuses on essential design issues and implementation criteria.  Special attention is given to the crucial preparatory stages in clear appreciation of the fact that any application of Object-Oriented GIS by default also requires a fundamental mindset change.  This is expressed in new approaches to the concept of space and the representation/management of its contents in the form of objects, behaviour and relationships.  Supported by the actual case study this paper aims to highlight the potential advances in research and analysis for archaeological spatial data and a capacity for additional methodological innovations through the incorporation of an OOGIS.

Marco Valenti, Alessandra Nardini, Vittorio Fronza, Federico Salzotti : Dip. Archeologia e Storia delle Arti - Univ. di Siena, Italy

The GIS solution for an excavation. Some considerations about the experience of the Medieval Archaeology Chair at the University of Siena

It is our intention to present the ten years of experience of our department in developing solutions for the management of data produced by an excavation. In particular we store all the data in a system composed by a GIS platform, an alphanumeical database and a media database. All the information is related by multidirectional links and retrievable through a system level application developed by our department (called "OpenArcheo") which optimizes the management of our data and allows the archaeologist to have all the different kind of data at hand in real time. Such a system, combined with the spatial analysis tools usually applied to landscapes, allows us to build predictive models of the settlements we dig, orientating every year our excavations and providing simulations of the parts we cannot dig. We also take a particular care in editing of web pages and hypermedial production, in order to spread the information we produce to the widest range of people.

Martijn  van Leusen : Groningen Institute of Archaeology, The Netherlands

The Lie of the Land: Interpreting Field Survey Results

Recent detailed field walking surveys, conducted by the author as part of a larger project to interpret regional differences in pre-and protohistoric Italy, provide ample fuel for the idea that the traditional regional collection of recorded sites is severely biased. With New Archaeology firmly out of favour (for the time being at least), most researchers seem to have opted for a personal and partly intuitive interpretation of their survey results. In this paper, the author argues that we should once more be looking for a proper theoretical and methodological basis for interpreting survey results, especially since these are now likely to become the single most important source of archaeological input data for landscape GIS studies, and hence for predictive models in Cultural Resource Management.

Susanne  van Raalte : Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden

Interactive computer simulations for research and education in archaeology

Rapid advances in computer technology have now made it possible to reconstruct archaeological sites and monuments in to 3D simulated environments. The computer with its ability to handle an enormous amount of data offers the opportunity to turn a passive viewer of plain images into an active participant of simulated events by interacting with the computer in real time. These visualization techniques allow the participant to experience the modeled virtual world as seen from all angles and distances under lightning conditions at any time of the day and season of the year. They provide the researcher with an effective tool for proposing and testing alternative theories about the purpose and methods of construction of the monument under study, and the student with a new approach to visualizing and understanding the function of the monument. The ultimate display systems for a complete illusion is to incorporate the participant bodily with all his/her senses. Such immerse systems have recently become available. The participant is equipped with sensors and shutter glasses, which give a stereoscopic view of the simulated world and provide the participant with the impression of moving and interacting in the virtual environment. The system can also simulate 3D sound effects. Some illustrative examples of these virtual reality effects, mainly from Stonehenge in England, are presented on video film. The adaptation of the new medium and its effectiveness for research and education in archaeology are discussed and evaluated, both for the personal computer and the immersive space system.

Philip  Verhagen, Jean-François Berger : Archeologisch Adviesbureau RAAP, The Netherlands

The hidden reserve: Predictive moddeling of buried archaeological sites in the middle Rhone valley (France)

Over the past few years, a number of archaeological surveys have been carried out in the Tricastin-Valdaine region (Middle Rhône Valley, France). The results of these surveys, which included digging trenches on many locations, indicated that many more sites are hidden below the surface than can be inferred from traditional field-walking data. In order to illustrate this effect, a predictive modelling study was carried out, using both the ‘old’ and ‘new’ data from the area. The modelling is based on the Kj-method, developed by Wansleeben and Verhart (1992). The paper will discuss the advantages of this method over other methods like chi-square analysis and site proportion to area ratios. Furthermore, an attempt was made to perform an extrapolation of actual site quantities that may be expected in the sedimentary zones. The results of the modelling clearly show that non-systematic survey has a serious effect on the interpretation of the distribution of the archaeological record, and of the actual site quantities involved. This makes a strong case for the use of sub-surface surveying methods in any sedimentary area. Authors: Philip Verhagen and Jean-François Berger.

Frank  Vermeulen, M. Antrop, B. Hageman, T. Wiedemann : University of Ghent, Department of Archaeology, Belgium

Ancient Roads and Fields in Northwestern Gaul: a GIS-based Analysis

The research results presented in this communication are part of a geo-archaeological project undertaken at the University of Ghent (Belgium) concerning the protohistoric and Roman landscapes of the pre-Roman and Roman Civitas Menaporium. This former administrative unit of the Roman Empire covers the coastal plain and the hilly lowlands of Western Belgium, Northwestern France and the southwestern Netherlands. The primary aim of this project, which combines geographical and archaeological methods, is to reconstruct and interpret, the Roman road system and land organisation in this area, as well as other ancient (pre-medieval) linear features. To get a grip of the material organisation of this (ill preserved) ancient landscape a full battery of techniques is being deployed: e.g. aerial photography, field survey, selective excavation, pedologic and palynological analysis, regressive examination of cartographic material, etc. Since 1997 the information gathered has been digitized and integrated in a GIS. This information system has become the playground for spatial analysis of all cartographic and archaeological data. Some of the following questions are to be answered: · Can information about the actual physical environment (topography, landform, soils) be used in spatial analysis for explaining Roman road and field patterns? · What problems should be overcome to make full use of oblique aerial photographs when studying such patterns? · How can cadastral map data be used for the spatial analysis of ancient field systems? · What procedures are available in a GIS-environment that are useful in studying archaeological geographical patterns, such as ancient roads and land divisions?

Albertus  Voorrips : Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, U. of Amsterdam, The Netherlands

A Study of the Properties of Clade-Diversity Diagrams by means of Computer Simulations

One of the approaches of evolutionary archaeology is the study of clade-diversity diagrams, or clades, in order to find out more about the developments through time of 'families' of artefact types.  There are, however, a number of technical problems with this approach, which will be explored in this paper. A first one is that the properties of various statistics that have been defined for clades are not well known. The most important of these statistics is the 'center of gravity' of a clade, CG, for short, which is a kind of mean. A second problem is that, contrary to the situation in palaeobiology, where clades have been studied in some detail, archaeological clades tend to be incomplete, in the sense that the real beginning and/or ending of a 'family' of artifact types are unknown, which makes interpretation of the shape of clades along the lines of reasoning used in palaeobiology, that are 'translated' into archaeological concepts, very shaky. In order to remedy the first problem, I did extensive computer simulations of the distribution of the CG. Under most conditions to be found in archaeology there are no generally applicable values of this statistic and its standard deviation that can be used in testing for statistically significant deviations from an expected value. It is possible, however, in many situations to use a regression equation based on the outcomes of the simulation to approximate the values for the statistic and its standard deviation. At the same time, it may be preferable to perform a simulation for which the parameters are set in accordance with those of the observed clade. The second problem is more complicated, and, besides that it is necessary to do simulations for which the parameters are set in accordance with the observed clade, to overcome it the original assumptions from palaeobiology need to be changed. I will show that this leads to other expectations for the value of the CG and to another way of interpreting an observed CG. A more general question is, however, whether or not the approach of comparing one's data with some kind of random model is going to be very useful. It might be more interesting to manipulate the various parameters in such a way that the development shown in the actual data is mimicked as well as is possible. The task then becomes to interpret the 'rules' that were developed in an archaeologically meaningful way, using whatever theoretical framework preferred. In the last part of this paper, at least the technical part, the development of the 'rules', will be explored.

Eileen L Vote, Daniel Acevedo Feliz, David Laidlaw, Martha Sharp Joukowsky : The Brown University SHARP Lab, USA

Archave - A Three Dimensional GIS For A Cave Environment

We will present an interactive system to combine a three dimensional GIS format for artifact analysis with topography, architecture and special finds from the Brown University Excavations at the Great Temple site in Petra, Jordan. The significance of the system lies in the ability of the user to interact with the 3D data in the context of a CAVE - CAVE Automatic Virtual Environment (Cruz-Neira, 1993) - an 3m x 3m room where users are immersed in a virtual environment through stereoscopic projection on three walls and the floor. We will investigate what types of information can be gleaned from this three dimensional system with multiple variables "overlaid" and viewed in a fully-immersive and interactive context. Can the proposed system be a useful alternative to a "datamining" method with more conventional database formats?

Kilbride  William : , UK

Open all hours: what do access statistics really tell us?

An ubiquitous feature of the information age in which we supposedly live is the hype that surrounds user statistics.  Web sites are becoming an increasingly important and increasingly sophisticated marketing tool, and the success and failure of commercial web sites depends on meeting important thresholds of hits per day. The world of archaeology, at least within higher education, is shielded from these sorts of pressures, though we take pleasure in noting the more obscure locations or are disappointed when there seems to be a dip in demand for our all important web site.  Nonetheless, user stats can provide an enormous wealth of information about who is visiting our web sites, where they come from, what interests them and when they work.  Such issues can be discussed in theory, though in practice interpretation is hampered by some well known problems. Using access statistics gathered over several years at the ADS, this paper will explore the trends represented in them.  This analysis will then open on to a discussion on the reality of internet accessibility to the wider community.  It will be argued that a lot of work is still to be done, that there seem to be significant holes in Internet access, but that huge steps have been made. Indeed, the demand has grown faster than could have been anticipated.  I will also compare Internet usage statistics to user statistics in more conventional parts of the heritage sector, such as patterns of museum visitor numbers, looking at the correspondences between these different sets of figures.

Rafa l   Zap l ata , André P. Tschan : Adam Mickiewicz Uniwersity;Institute of Prehistory, Poland

An "Integrated Space" Approach for the Interpretation of a Medieval Stronghold in Middle Pomerania, Poland

A major focus of post-processual archaeology is the concern with the meaning of space and landscape. For the following study a fundamental notion is the belief that both individuals and communities "create" space as a social construct. Embracing this idea also defines space as an all-inclusive manifestation that is full of a commonly recognized and shared symbolic content. Consequently, there is an added interpretation potential with regard to past cultures by investigating the symbolism of given spaces and/or the objects contained within. Ideally such research can supplement some of the otherwise limited archaeological assessments that are preoccupied with the identification of mainly functional characteristics. However, at present, Polish archaeology continues to adopt more traditional approaches with the result that, by and large, there are only utilitarian explanations for the subject of medieval strongholds. In an attempt to open new analytical avenues this work aims to break with any such prevailing trends by combining post-processual concepts applied in landscape archaeology with the powerful tools offered by Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The goal is to engage in more holistic investigations of archaeological remains beyond the current treatment of artefacts and features as isolated phenomena that are seemingly devoid of any wider contextual setting. In other words, the site at Wrzesnica (8th - 9th/10th century) is not just a singular or self-contained example of an early medieval stronghold but rather represents an integral utilitarian and symbolic part of the overall spatial organization regarding the Middle Pomeranian cultural landscape. The specific research tool of choice for this paper was a viewshed analysis based on the strong suggestion that visibility/intervisibility played an important role at Wrzesnica. There is therefore a good likelihood that this stronghold, by virtue of its clear visual prominence, also exhibited a significant symbolic relationship with much of the surrounding landscape features (e.g., settlements and burial mounds). Thus, this "integrated space" approach based on the generated visibility maps in combination with the post-processual interpretation of the wider archaeological context, forms an enhanced and intriguing data set that can potentially achieve a greater understanding of the past.

Mikhail O Zhukovsky, Irina Arzhantseva : Moscow State University, Russia

Virtual computer-aided 3-D reconstruction of the Kiafar site, North Caucasus, Russia

Computer applications in archaeology is an emerging field of scientific research in Russia. The paper discusses the main aspects of an adequate 3-D reconstruction of an archaeological site with territorial, landscape and zone interactions of its components. Is it possible to generate adequate 3-D virtual models of archaeological sites from the data that was never initially digital and was never supposed to be digitally processed and analyzed? If yes, then what minimum of data and software do we need? To make the paper illustrative we included a brief outline of a successful project, involving virtual 3-D reconstruction of two medieval towns on the North Caucasus – Kiafar and Gornoye Ekho. The Kiafar site is one of the well-organized and largest fortress towns of Alans dated by the 10-12 centuries A.D. The project includes tree main stages: 1) the sites micro-relief virtual models construction and their verification for adequacy; 2) referring to the generated model the main elements of sites, both natural and man-made artificial structures; 3) rendering of the models with realistic texture materials. With the model created, it arouses the questions of further dissemination of the digital data. The database itself, what components should it include? What media could be used to store it? How to make the data accessible? The final models feature thee – educational, preservation and analytical - main aspects.

Tommaso  Zoppi, Enrico Reali : University of Florence, Italy

Computerised techniques for field data acquisition

The problem we address in this paper derives from the need to increase the speed and reduce the cost of field data acquisition. The method we suggest is particularly suitable for standing structures, but it has been tested also for horizontal layers. Using a commonly available equipment (PC and a digital camera) with an image rectification software and a CAD program, it is possible to set up a photogrammetry analysis of the structures found during an excavation, reducing the acquisition time and improving the productivity of the excavation work. Most of the measuring activity is thus transferred from the 'field' to the 'laboratory', increasing the precision of the drawing and preventing problems due to very difficult field conditions. Processing the data obtained in this way has implications both on knowledge diffusion and at a scientific level, allowing - to create an archaeological hypertext, to access and analyse all the information produced by the investigation - to create a 3D model of archaeological stratigraphy, which virtually reproduces the original situation and its 'unmounting'. This method has been tested in three cases with different features: - Rocca Ricciarda, the total excavation of a small medieval castle placed on the top of a hill in the Tuscany Apennines - Cafaggiolo, an excavation performed by small sample areas on a Medici villa in the country-side near Florence - Showbak, a 'light archaeology' analysis on the standing structures of a Jordan pluri-stratified castle, with phases dating from the Crusaders up to the 19th century. The experiments proved that this methodology may be applied to quite different situations with great flexibility and reliability.

Daniela  Draghia, Alma Rotea : Muzeul Civilizatiei Dacice si Romane, Romania

	The past scene through modern-days eyes

Mercedes Farjas Abadia, A. Wickert,  A. García : Catedratico de E.U., E.U.I.T. Topografica, Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

The Archaeological Phenomenon through its Archaeologicals Sites. Problem of the Archaeological Emplacement Representation.

The Research Group of Archaeology and Landscape of the Polytechnic University of Madrid is working on the problem of the representation of archaeological sites and their surroundings in order to have them in digital format, and distribute them in museums, educational institutions and include them also in ours homes.  The purpose of this work is to capture the image of the sites in detail, the current landscape as well as its historical evolution, in order to create 2D and 3D representations for archaeological multidisciplinar teams. A second stage of this research analyses the posibility of transforming these documents into public open documents.  Currently, 3D representations of this work have been performed, so that preliminary results are included in this poster as well as their flow diagrams.

David Gilman Romano : University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology

Reconstructing the Urban Landscape of Roman Corinth

Since 1988 the Corinth Computer Project has been working toward a reconstruction of the planning of the city of Roman Corinth.  There are numerous aspects of the ancient city that have been considered in this study, including buildings, structures, monuments, roadways as well as the design of the forum and the insulae of the planned urban colony.  There have been two parallel interests in our work in this regard.  First is the understanding of the way in which the Romans altered the landscape for their use in the construction of the urban colony, and the second is the way in which the ancient city has been transformed as a result of natural and manmade factors over the past 2000 years. By means of accurate electronic total station survey, digital terrain models, and digitization of actual-state drawings, three-dimensional reconstructions of roadways and urban areas have been possible.  For instance, because of the creation of an excavation dump in the early history of the Corinth Excavations of the American School of Classical Studies that began in 1896, a portion of the ancient city was inadvertently covered and has received only limited excavation as a result.  This area, to the northeast of the theater, has become an area of interest in the study of the planning of the Roman city because of the presence of an important roadway covered by the excavation dump and an important intersection of roads nearby.  The reconstruction of these roadways and their relationship to the theater and the city plan is considered.  Implications for the understanding of the planning and use of the Roman city are discussed.

Stefan  Groh, Stefan Klotz, Christian Schirmer : Austrian Archaeological Institute, Austria

Automatic 3D-digitizing of a Roman cellar (2nd cent. AD) in Mautern/Favianis (Austria)

The Roman auxiliary fort Favianis (1st-5th cent. AD), Lower Austria, is situated on the eastern bank of the Danube. From the beginning of the first century AD onward until late Roman times it has been used as a fortification at the Noric Danube Limes. Important features of the military camp (e.g. watch towers, parts of the fortification walls and of the buildings inside the castellum), large areas of the civilian settlements surrounding the fort as well as late Roman burial grounds could have been examined by archaeologists unitil today. In 1953 the well preserved remains of a Roman cellar with plastered walls, concrete floor and seven niches were revealed in the area of the eastern civilian settlement (vicus) of Mautern/Favianis in the course of a building project. But, at that time due to deadline pressure it was not possible for the archaeologists to carry out a detailed documentation of the cellar by means of photographs or plans. However, the cellar itself has not been destroyed but has been integrated into the basement of the new building. For the recent recording of the cellar, carried out in 1999, a roboter-tachymat was used: Selfpositioning, without a reflector and driven by a motor this tachymat measures a point cloud. Based on these data a wireframe and a 3D-model combined with orthophotos of the walls have been generated. Therefore, 46 years after the excavation of the cellar this documentation does not only illustrate various specific aspects of Roman building structures, beyond that it allows - in combination with current excavation results - to discuss urbanistic questions for the Roman settlement of Mautern/Favianis in a new light.

Inger Marie  Holm-Olsen, Hans Tommervik : NINA-NIKU Foundation for nature research and cultural heritage research, Norway

Mapping of Sámi sites and cultural landscape using GIS and remote sensing

The objective of this study is to develop a method for a systematic mapping of  Sámi sites and cultural landscape in Northern Norway, using a vegetation map based on satellite data  and enhanced satellite images (Landsat 5/TM data from July 1990). One field method for locating Sámi remains in the landscape is to survey  the impact of the Sámi land use on the vegetation. An important agent here is the reindeer that affect the vegetation especially around the camp sites. The trampling effects and the concentration of manure leads to the development of grass- and herb dominated meadows/grasslands which  appear as green areas surrounded by an often "poor" vegetation dominated by lichens and dwarf shrubs. Work with an impact assessment of the military training area Mauken-Blatind in Northern Norway, offered NIKU, in collaboration with NINA, the opportunity of a test case. The archaeological sites in Mauken-Blatind are from Sámi reindeer herders and are dated to the period AD 1700 – 1900. The majority of the settlements are represented by hearths, but there are also traces of milking meadows, herding fences and other features. The settlements are often located on moraines and other well drained geomorphological features where dwarf shrubs, willows, mosses and lichens dominate. We used a vegetation map based on satellite data and enhanced satellite images. The vegetation cover map was based on a unsupervised classification of 30 classes.  Using ArcView we assessed the vegetation cover types within concentric zones of 10, 100, and 500 metres from the centre of each site, demonstrating that there existed a significant correlation between old Sámi camp sites and the distribution of meadow and antropogenic vegetation cover types.  Enhanced satellite images and geomorphological maps were also used to predict the occurrence in unsurveyed areas of sites that are likely to be milking meadows or herding fences. This predictive model has not yet been tested.

Ian  Johnson : Archaeological Computing Laboratory, School of Archaeology, Australia

	The ECAI metadata clearinghouse: a distributed approach to cultural data developed by the TimeMap project
	The poster will illustrate the structure of the Electronic Cultural Atlas Initiative IT architecture and the range of tools and software solutions developed to support a centrally-indexed set of distributed GIS databases on heterogeneous data and map servers. The poster will be accompanied by a live demonstration of data access through the ECAI clearinghouse using the TimeMap mapping application.

Ksenija  Kova č e c Nagli č , Veronika Leskov š ek, Franc J. Zakraj š ek : Cultural Heritage Office of the Republic of Slovenia, Urban Planning Insitute of the Republic of Slovenia, Slovenia

Cultural Heritage Information System in the Republic of Slovenia

The Cultural Heritage Office of the Republic of Slovenia is introducing an up-to-date information support to cultural heritage protection during the last few years. The paper / poster will mainly present the following subjects: the concept of Cultural Heritage Information System (CHIS), different subsystems of CHIS (registration subsystem, documentation subsystem, administrative subsystem, heritage geographical information system) and the results that have been achieved during the development of the CHIS. The paper / poster will try to focus on the archaeological heritage, which is one of several different types of heritage dealt within the system.

Irina Oberländer-Tarnoveanu, Corina Bors, Andrzej Prinke, Petko Staynov : CIMEC, Bucharest, Romania; MAP, Poznan, Poland; III, Sofia, Bulgaria

ArchTerra Project. ArchWeb Nodes - from Template to Implementation

ArchTerra Project (INCO 977054) is dedicated to extending archaeological Web nodes to Bulgaria, Poland and Romania. The project aims to help redress the current imbalances in access to European networking facilities for archaeologists in Central and Eastern Europe, and to improve archaeological communication and information services on the continent. Archaeological Web nodes in each country follow a common structure but differ in information content. They are located at the main research organizations responsible for archiving, maintenance and supply of information in these countries.  ArchWeb nodes also bring together partners and collections from across Europe, in a collaboration effort to demonstrate the richness and fragility of the European archaeological heritage, including virtual exhibition and multilingual access.

Jar i Pakkanen : Finnish Archaeological Institute at Athens, Athens, Greece

Ancient foot units and building dimensions: computerised evaluation of unit-fit

The possible lengths of ancient Greek foot units have been discussed almost as long as scholarly work on the buildings has been conducted. W. B. Dinsmoor argued in 1961 in favour of only two Greek units, the Ionic foot of c. 29.4 cm and the Doric foot of c. 32.6 cm, but this is far from being generally accepted. For example, in connection with the Parthenon at Athens, the confusion of foot-standards, modules and cubits suggested by different scholars is profound: the units are 29.366-29.436 cm, 30.5-30.7 cm, 32.6-32.8 cm, 49.02857 cm, and 61.2857 cm. The limitations of the previously suggested analysis methods, such as H. Bankel's "metrological scale", are discussed in the poster, as well as the validity of the standard method of deriving the length of the Greek foot units from the dimensions of arbitrary large building elements. A statistical method for evaluating the fit of the different foot units to the measurement data is put forward; the computer program used in the analysis has been implemented on top of statistical package Survo 98. The buildings chosen as examples are used to illustrate the possibilities and limitations of the foot analysis method presented in the poster: the case studies discussed are the Parthenon, the Late Classical temple of Athena Alea at Tegea, the Hellenistic Hestiatorion at Epidauros and the Roman temple of Juno at Gabii. Topics covered in the poster are e.g. analysis of small building detail dimensions in order to determine the foot length and use of the computer program as a tool to study building design.

Bernarda Županek, Dimitrij Mlekuž : Mestni muzej Ljubljana, Slovenia

Counting the uncountable: Quantitative Approach to Religious Differences between Roman Towns Emona and Poetovio

A considerable number of monuments dedicated to deities has been discovered, collected and interpreted in the past years in the area of Roman towns Emona and Poetovio. Poster presents an application of some quantitative and pattern-recognition methods on the collected corpus of monuments. We aim at pointing out regularities in our samples as well as advantages and restrictions of a quantitative approach to the study of epigraphic monuments, an approach we believe offers a range of new possibilities in studying epigraphic data.

Jens Andersen et al. : Denmark (Workshop III)

	"Student section": Short student presentations on applications of IT in the archaeological and historical sciences
	The thing is that I on the second year run a one-year course on archaeological computing which the students can make as their 3rd or 4th year. There are at least 15 students who want to go to Ljubljana so we will fill two mini-busses with students alone. These students are willing to - alone and in pairs - to present some of their work in short papers (10 min.). I will introduce this block with an introduction to the curriculum and the learning methods.
	Jens Andresen: Teaching IT for (pre)historians: The Aarhus curriculum
	The increasing number of computer applications in archaeology cover wider and wider aspects of the research process. In the collection and archiving of data, in data-analyses and syntheses, and finally in the dessimination of knowledge IT gradually replaces conventional media. IT truly is an “agent of change”. New generations of archaeologists clearly have to be taught in the new possibilities and pit-falls of IT. Aim of this paper is to present the Aarhus curriculum in IT for (pre)historians. The following papers are presentations by students who have attended the one-year course.
	Sidsel Wåhlin: Archaeology and IT. A field of research and a power(full) tool
	In these years IT is applied more and more in Archaeology but often it seems that archaeology is applied in IT. That is it is IT’s that determines the the method, theory and data that is used and thereby the analysis, conclussions and new projects. In order to change that approach it is important to return to archaeology and analyse how we do research as archaeologist in terms of data, method and theory. Only by focussing on archaeologys process of research can we use IT in a sensible and expanding manner. IT will change what archaeology does and produces but we need to control and exploit this as archaeologists. In this paper I focus not on archaeology as a whole but on how to schools exmplified in two researchers define the archaeological research procces and how they impliment this in their use of IT. The researchers are Torsten Madsen and Ian Hodder. I also present an alternative way to understand this procces. Some examples from Danish Archaeology in terms of data collection, storage and management and research is presented to illuminate how and why we as archaeologist need to control and develop our field of research and the IT we choose to apply.
	Henrik Hatt Jensen: Considerations on multi-causual thinking and its formalisation in landscape studies
	The introduction of IT in archaeology force the professionals in the field to explicitly define their knowledge and formalise their methodology in order to fully exploit the new tools. This process has been the cause of many problems in the application of GIS-systems and the development of predictive models. In order to increase the relevance of such undertakings finds the author it necessary to generate multi-causual explanation models, where a cognitive and contextual approach to the study of prehistoric societies plays a major rôle. The major problem of a meaningful application of IT in archaeology therefore is the formalisation of cognitive and non-measurable factors. With this approach it will be possible to leave generalising, eco-deterministic models.
	Asbjørn Romvig Thomsen: Linear text and hyper-text: considerations on representation and understanding
	The paper presents some considerations on the characteristics of these two different ways of structuring text, and the way in which the textual representation influences the reader’s understanding and apprehension of the content.
	Rene Taudal Poulsen, Kasper Lambert Johansen & Anne Lif Lund Jacobsen: Scholarly publishing in the Information Age
	This contribution is a critical survey of advantages/disadvantages of digital scholarly publishing. To what extent are digital publications a relevant solution to the current problems in scientific publishing? Are we on the brink of a revolution in terms of scholarly discource?
	Kaj Fredsgaard Rasmussen & Henriette Günther Sørensen: Publishing on the Internet
	Digital publishing is a two faced coin. On one hand you can reach a large audience at a relatively low cost. On the other hand there are problems concerning the credibility and reliability of the published information. Therefore the Internet could simplify publishing but at the same time the Internet calls for a need of editing the published material.
	Kristine Stub Precht: Media-differentiation as an alternative publishing strategy
	A publication tries to meet the interest of three different groups: 1) the public, who is only interested in the results of the scientists 2) the scentists, who are more interested in the methodology and proccesses that lead to the result 3) the publisher, who is interested in making money. These three diverse interests lead often to a gap between the scentific and public demands of the published material. Are new media able to overcome this gap?
	Jon Jagd Christensen: The Web-site of the Nordic Archaeological Abstracts
	This paper presents the new Web-site of the Nordic Archaeological Abstracts for an international audience. NAA is a complete index to the Scandinavian litterature on the subject of archaeology. It is structured similary as its counterparts in Britain and Poland. The Web-site itself allows the user to do on-line search and retrieval in the abstracts on a free-text basis as well as index’ed search on subjects and authors.
	Lise Hein Pedersen: Design of research databases – a technician’s job?
	It is often said that programmers shall do programming and archaeologists should do archaeology. It is the experience of the author allthough that a trained archaeologist is a considerable better resource in creating i.e. special purpose research database-applications than a technician. The reason is the simple one that a trained archaeologist understands the “customer’s” problems and needs.
	Lillian Ahlmann Johansen & Merete Jensen: Structures of the Living and the Dead in Denmarks Iron Age
	We will try to give a solution for a databasestructure concerning graveyards and farms in the danish iron age. The graveyards can contain different kinds of graves, inhumation and cremation, and finds within them. The structure of farms is a bit more complex, where several houses can be part of a bigger unit, and the houses can be constructed in different ways
	Jesper Hansen: Aspects regarding the use and development of registration-systems
	In Denmark we have carried out archaeological excavations since the middle of the 1530´es. Corresponding to these, registrationsystems have developed and in the last decade electronical registration has been defacto on most danish archaeological museums. At present the electronical registrationsystems in Denmark make up an unhomogenius group of systems wich are not fully used and at the same time new systems are developed despite of the users problems. The chief aim for this contribution to the discussion is to focus on the development and posebilities of a different use and organization of the existing systems.
	Kamilla Fiedler Christiansen: Some aspects in the discussion about electronic registration at the Danish museums
	Since the end og the eighties the electronic registation has been a subject in the danish museum world. In the beginning it was planned to make a common system to be used at all danish museums, so the informations could be stored in an uniform way. But a national system was never made. Today some museums therefore have made their own systems other is still waiting. New attempts are now being made to get access to the big amount of data. But the fact remains, from being ahead we are now far behind.

Jens Andersen et al. : Denmark (Workshop IV)

	"Professional section": Current Danish research and development in the study and management of archaeological sites
	The professional block is a current overview of current Danish efforts in the SMR/GIS and intra-site studies. Especially the contributions of the phd-students are innovative. Allthough their work in small parts overlap, they concentrate on different aspects and methodologies (spatio-temporal networks, retrogressive modelling, spatial statistics). Talking to them I found that each contribution could benifit from the works of the others giving the audience which is interested in national strategies, the possibility of acquiering an overview without jumping from session to session.
	Peter Steen Nielsen: 2000 years of settlement continuity in Jutland, Denmark. A study in the use of cultural predictors in geographic modelling
	When trying to model the occurrence of settlement in landscape, geophysical features are predominant variables in most studies. In this study these variables are seen as culturally independent in the sense that they have not been altered by Iron Age man. A number of culturally dependent variables like 18th century land-use, soil-yield, and location of historic settlement have been used with some success in illuminating prehistoric settlement location and patterning.
	Bo Ejstrud: Before the machine. Human patterned behaviour and predictive modelling
	Without doubt predictive modelling is an effecient tool in Cultural Heritage Management. Their danger, on the other hand, is that they are potentially restrictive, leading the eye to the high-probability areas and hence the areas and sites that archaeologists already know the best. The aim of this paper is to discuss the methodology of predictive modelling: What we actually do when we try to reproduce the system of decisions that lead people to want to live here rather than there.
	Lars Nørbach : Prehistoric iron smelting in a settlement context
	The two large scale excavations Drengsted and Snorup illustrate how iron production and settlement was organised in Denmark during the late roman and early germanic iron age. The density of iron producing settlements of the Southwestern parts of Denmark is indicated by mapping finds in the Snorup-region – among others on the Historical cadastral map of "The Royal Commision of Scienses" from the second half of the 18th century. Geological and geographical parametres are also taken into consideration whereto locate settlements with iron production in Denmark. Applications used for managing the amount of data are MapInfo and VerticalMapper.
	Mads Holst: Formalising facts and fiction in four dimensions. Relational description of temporal structures in settlements
	Long lasting settlements with physically overlapping structures often contain a vast amount of observations which can be taken to indicate specific relative chronological relations between the different structures, stratigraphy being only one of the more obvious examples. The settlements can in this way be regarded as a relational system. Our concept of the temporal signficance of the observations can be translated into formal logical expressions. This allows the construction of a detailed graph of the temporal structures of the settlement. The procedure will be demonstrated on a section of a Danish Iron Age settlement. The temporal structures of the settlements often take up a central position in the interpretation of social organization. Compared to the traditional handling of temporal structures the formalised approach gives a more detailed picture of the development of the settlement with more information and the potential of conducting formal analysis on the structures. Furthermore it presupposes the explicit formulation of the preconditions on which the temporal sorting is based revealing a problematic mix of facts and fiction in the traditional analysis of Danish Iron Age settlements.
	Torsten Madsen: Transforming diversity into uniformity. Experiments with meta-database structures for archival purposes
	Recording and storing data in digital formats is of growing concern to archaeology. There are many problems related to this subject. One of these is the question of data standards. Obviously an abyss exists between the administrators, who want data to fit their systems, and the researchers who want freedom to record, what they find is essential. The controversy is not one that can be easily solved, but at least in one aspect the potentials of modern database systems have not been sufficiently probed and discussed. Archaeologists are all too ready to accept a direct equivalence between the structure of their recordings and the structure of the database used to store the recordings. Too little has been done to investigate the possibilities of creating meta-database structures that may hold a variety of recording structures. The current paper will report on experiments with such meta-structures and the results – mostly of a positive nature – gained.
	Henrik Jarl Hansen: SMRs in new clothes
	The paper will focus on the changes the Danish National Record of Cultural History is going through from a traditional Sites and Monuments Record (SMR) to a Cultural-Historical Atlas of Denmark – a portal to the digital knowledge about the cultural history from past to present.
	Lars Bagge & Claus Dam: The archaeological record in the cultural landscape: A system for administering the past in the present – for the future
	As part of a multidisciplinary research programme, the Danish National Record of Sites and Monuments is in the process of developing an information system for the cultural landscape. This system - working within a GIS framework – contains digital information on the archaelogical record and the past, present and future cultural landscape and is intended as a strategic aid in the administration and planning of the devolepment of the rural landscape. This paper presents a status for the project and the results reached so far.

Martijn van Leusen et al. : Groningen Institute of Archaeology, The Netherlands (Workshop I) ( for additional information click here: http://www.let.rug.nl/arge/Work/thesaurus.html )

Data In, Garbage Out (1): Building a multilingual thesaurus application to index and retrieve information on the web

- Introduction to the ArchTerra project and its Multilingual Thesaurus action, by Martijn van Leusen - Introduction to the multilingual glossary of Eastern European periods and cultures, by Irina Oberlander-Tarnoveanu This workshop is intended to continue earlier electronic workshops on archaeological thesauri. If you are interested, you can join the April 1st - 9th e-workshop on IMPLEMENTING MULTILINGUAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL THESAURI ON THE WEB hosted by the EAHW discussion list (http://www.mailbase.ac.uk/lists/eahw/). Instructions for joining are posted there. For further details, visit http://www.let.rug.nl/arge/Work/thesaurus.html). In order to produce, find, and represent multilingual material on the World Wide Web, not only are several improvements to today's authoring and browsing systems in order, but there is also a need for an agreed set of key words with which to index information on the web. This set of key words must be a) small enough to be pragmatic b) structured (as in a thesaurus) c) defined (as in a glossary) d) multilingual The workshop is being organised by members of the ArchTerra project which is currently setting up sets of archaeological web pages in Romania, Poland and Bulgaria, plus central facilities for European archaeology in the Netherlands and Italy. The aim of the workshop is to assess current and future solutions to the problems of multilingual access to archaeological information and to help evaluate the glossary-cum-thesaurus approach of the ArchTerra project. A pre-conference discussion list plus www archive will be set up to allow interested persons to participate in the preparations for the workshop. Since the workshop touches on many related subjects, from metadata to web authoring, from terminology to translation, and from character sets to web-database interfaces, we hope to draw participants from a varied background. A number of speakers will be invited to give brief introductory presentations.

Martijn van Leusen et al. : Groningen Institute of Archaeology, The Netherlands (Workshop II)

Data In, Garbage Out (2): Building a multilingual thesaurus application to index and retrieve information on the web

In order to produce, find, and represent multilingual material on the World Wide Web, not only are several improvements to today's authoring and browsing systems in order, but there is also a need for an agreed set of key words with which to index information on the web. This set of key words must be a) small enough to be pragmatic b) structured (as in a thesaurus) c) defined (as in a glossary) d) multilingual The workshop is being organised by members of the ArchTerra project which is currently setting up sets of archaeological web pages in Romania, Poland and Bulgaria, plus central facilities for European archaeology in the Netherlands and Italy. The aim of the workshop is to assess current and future solutions to the problems of multilingual access to archaeological information and to help evaluate the glossary-cum-thesaurus approach of the ArchTerra project. A pre-conference discussion list plus www archive will be set up to allow interested persons to participate in the preparations for the workshop. Since the workshop touches on many related subjects, from metadata to web authoring, from terminology to translation, and from character sets to web-database interfaces, we hope to draw participants from a varied background. A number of speakers will be invited to give brief introductory presentations.